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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2009  with  funding  from 

NCSU  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/cyclopediaofarch02amer 


Cyclopedia 

of 

Architecture,  Carpentry 
and  Building 


A    General   Reference    Work 

ON        ARCHITECTURE,        CARPENTRY,        BUILDING,        SUPERINTENDENCE, 

CONTRACTS,    SPECIFICATIONS,     BUILDING    LAW,    STAIR-BUILDING, 

ESTIMATING,    MASONRY,    REINFORCED    CONCRETE,    STEEL 

CONSTRUCTION,   ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING,  SHEET 

METAL  WORK,  HEATING,  VENTILATING,  ETC. 


Prepared  by  a   Staff  of 

ARCHITECTS,    BUILDERS,    AND    EXPERTS    OF    THE    HIGHEST 
PROFESSIONAL    STANDING 


Illustrated  with  over  Three  Thousand  Engravings 


TEN    VOLUMES 


CHICAGO 

AMERICAN  TECHNICAL   SOCIETY 

1908 


Copyright,  1907 

BY 

AMEklCAN    SCHOOL   OF   CORRESPONDENCE 
Copyright,  1907 

BY 

AMERICAN    TECHNICAL   SOCIETY 


Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London 
All  Rights  Reserved 


Authors  and  Collaborators 


JAMES  C.  PLANT 

Superintendent  of  Computing    Division,    Office  of    Supervising  Architect.   Treasury 
Washington,  D.  C. 

WALTER  LORING  WEBB,  C.  E. 

Consulting  Civil  Engineer. 

Author  of  "Railroad  Construction,"  "Economics  of  Railroad  Construction,"  etc. 

J.  R.  COOLIDGE,  Jr.,  A.  M. 

Architect,  Boston. 

President,  Boston  Society  of  Architects. 

Acting  Director,  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston. 

V» 

H.  V.  VON  HOLST,  A.  B.,  S.  B. 

Architect,  Chicago. 

President,  Chicago  Architectural  Club. 

^• 

FRED  T.  HODGSON 

Architect  and  Editor. 

Member  of  Ontario  Association  of  Architects. 

Author  of  "Modern  Carpentry,"  "Architectural  Drawing,  Self-Taught,"   "The  Steel 
Square,"  "  Modern  Estimator,"  etc. 

ALFRED  E.  ZAPF,  S.  B. 

Secretary,  American  School  of  Correspondence. 


AUSTIN  T.  BYRNE 

Civil  Engineer. 

Author  of  "  Highway  Coiistruction,"  "  Materials  and  Workmanship." 


HARRIS  C.  TROW,  S.  B. 

Editor  of  Textbook  Department,  American  School  of  Correspondence. 
American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers. 

V 

WM.  H.  LAWRENCE,  S.  B." 

Associate  Professor  of  Architecture,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 


Authors  and  Collaborators— Continued 


EDWARD  NICHOLS 

Architect,  Boston. 

H.  W.  GARDNER,  S.  B. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Architecture,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 


ALFRED  E.  PHILLIPS,  C.  E.,  Ph.  D. 

Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  Armour  Institute  of  Technology. 

GEORGE  C.  SHAAD,  E.  E. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Electrical  Engineering,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

MORRIS  WILLIAMS 

Writer  and  Expert  on  Carpentry  and  Building. 


HERBERT  E.  EVERETT 

Department  of  Architecture,  University  of  Pennsylvania. 


E.  L.  WALLACE,  B.  S. 

Instructor,  American  School  of  Correspondence. 
American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers. 


OTIS  W.  RICHARDSON,  LL.  B. 

Of  the  Boston  Bar. 

WM.  G.  SNOW,  S.  B. 

Steam  Heating  Specialist. 

Author  of  "  Furnace  Heating,"  Joint  Author  of  "  Ventilation  of  Buildings." 

American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 


W.  HERBERT  GIBSON,  C.  E. 

Expert  on  Reinforced  Concrete. 

ELIOT  N.  JONES,  LL.  B. 

Of  the  Boston  Bar. 


Authors  and  Collaboratoi^s— Continued 


R.  T.  MILLER,  Jr.,  A.  M.,  LL.  B. 

President.  American  School  of  Correspondence. 


WM.  NEUBECKER 

Instructor,  Sheet  Metal  Department  of  New  York  Trade  School. 


WM.  BEALL  GRAY 

Sanitary  Engineer. 

Member  of  National  Association  of  Master  Plumbers. 


EDWARD  MAURER,  B.  C.  E. 

Professor  of  Mechanics,  University  of  Wisconsin. 

V» 
EDWARD  A.  TUCKER,  S.  B. 

Architectural  Engineer. 

Member  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 

V» 

EDWARD  B.  WAITE 

Head  of  Instruction  Department,  American  School  of  Correspondence. 
American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 
Western  Society  of  Engrineers. 

ALVAH  HORTON  SABIN,  M.  S. 

Lecturer  in  New  York  University. 

Author  of  "  Technology  of  Paint  and  Varnish,"  etc. 

American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 

W 

GEORGE  R.  METCALFE,  M.  E. 

Head  of  Technical  Publication  Department,  Westinghouse  Elec.  &  Mfg.  Co. 

Formerly  Technical  Editor,  Street  Railway  Review. 

Formerly  Editor  of  Textbook  Department,  American  School  of  Correspondence. 

HENRY  M.  HYDE 

Author,  and  Editor  "The  Technical  World  Magazine." 

CHAS.  L.  HUBBARD,  S.  B.,  M.  E. 

Consulting  Engineer. 

With  S.  Homer  Wood  bridge  Co.,  Heating,  Ventilating,  and  Sanitary  Engineers. 


Authors  and  Collaborators— Continued 


FRANK  CHOUTEAU  BROWN 

Architect,  Boston. 

Author  of  "  Letters  and  Lettering." 


DAVID  A.  GREGG 

Teacher  and  Lecturer  in  Pen  and  Ink  Rendering,  Massachusetts  Instituteof  Technology. 

CHAS.  B.  BALL 

Civil  and  Sanitary  Engineer. 
American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 


ERVIN  KENISON,  S.  B. 

Instructor  in  Mechanical  Drawing,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 


CHAS.  E.  KNOX,  E.  E. 

Consulting  Electrical  Engineer. 

American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers. 


JOHN  H.  JALLINGS 

Mechanical  Engineer 


FRANK  A.  BOURNE,  S.  M.,  A.  A.  L  A. 

Architect,  Boston. 

Special  Librarian,  Department  of  Fine  Arts,  Public  Library,  Boston. 


ALFRED  S.  JOHNSON,  Ph.  D. 

Formerly  Editor  "  The  Technical  World  Magazine." 


GILBERT  TOWNSEND,  S.  B. 

With  Post  &  McCord,  New  York  City. 


HENRY  C.  BUCK,  A.  B.,  A.  M. 

Instructor,  American  School  of  Correspondence. 
American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers. 


Authorities   Consulted 


THE  editors  have  freely  consulted  the  standard  technical  literature 
of  America  and  Europe  in  the  preparation  of  these  volumes.  They 
desire  to  express  their  indebtedness  particularly  to  the  following 
eminent  authorities  whose  well-known  works  should  be  in  the  library  of 
everyone  connected  with  building. 

Grateful  acknowledgment  is  here  made  ?lso  for  the  invaluable  co- 
opei'ation  of  the  foremost  architects,  engineers,  and  builders  in  making 
these  volumes  thoroughly  representative  of  the  very  best  and  latest  prac- 
tice in  the  design  and  construction  of  buildings;  also  for  the  valuable 
drawings  and  data,  suggestions,  criticisms,  and  other  courtesies. 


J.  B.  JOHNSON,  C.  E. 

Formerly  Dean,  College  of  Mechanics  and  Engineering,  University  of  Wisconsin. 

Author  of  "Engineering  Contracts  and  Specifications,"  "Materials  of  Construction," 
Joint  Author  of  "Theory  and  Practice  in  the  Designing  of  Modern  Framed  Struc- 
tures." 

^• 
JOHN  CASSAN  WAIT,  M.  C.  E.,  LL.  B. 

Counselor-at-Law  and  Consulting  Engineer ;    Formerly  Assistant  Professor  of  Engineer- 
ing at  Harvard  University. 
Author  of  "  Engineering  and  Architectural  Jurisprudence." 


T.  M.  CLARK 

Fellow  of  the  American  Institute  of  Architects. 

Author  of  "Building  Superintendence,"  "Architect,  Builder,  and  Owner  before  the 
Law." 

FRANK  E.  KIDDER,  C.  E.,  Ph.  D. 

Consulting  Architect  and  Structural  Engineer;  Fellow  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Architects. 

Author  of  "Architect's  and  Builder's  Pocket-Book,"  "Building  Construction  and 
Superintendence  ;  Part  I,  Masons'  Work  ;  Part  II,  Carpenters'  Work  ;  Part  III, 
Trussed  Roofs  and  Roof  Trusses  ;  "  "Churches  and  Chapels." 


AUSTIN  T.  BYRNE,  C.  E. 

Civil  Engineer. 

Author  of   "Inspection  of  Materials  and  Workmanship  Employed  in  Construction," 
"Highway  Construction." 

W.  R.  WARE 

Formerly  Professor  of  Architecture,  Columbia  University. 
Author  of  "  Modern  Perspective." 


Authorities  Consulted — Continued 


CLARENCE  A.  MARTIN 

Professor  of  Architecture  at  Cornell  University. 
Author  of  "  Details  of  Building  Construction." 


FRANK  N.  SNYDER 

Architect. 

Author  of  "  Building- Details." 


CHARLES  H.  SNOW 

Author  of  "  The  Principal  Species  of  Wood,  Their  Characteristic  Properties." 

V» 
OWEN  B.  MAGINNIS 

Author  of  "  How  to  Frame  a  House,  or  House  and  Roof  Framing." 

HALBERT  P.  GILLETTE,  C.  E. 

Author  of  "Handbook  of  Cost  Data  for  Contractors  and  Engineers." 

OLIVER  COLEMAN 

Author  of  "Successful  Houses." 

CHAS.  E.  GREENE,  A.  M.,  C.  E. 

Formerly  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  University  of  Michigan. 
Author  of  "  Structural  Mechanics." 

LOUIS  de  C.  BERG 

Author  of  "Safe  Building." 

GAETANO  LANZA,  S.  B.,  C.  &  M.  E. 

Professor  of  Theoretical  and  Applied  Mechanics,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 
Author  of  "Applied  Mechanics." 

V 

IRA  0.  BAKER 

Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  University  of  Illinois. 
Author  of  "  A  Treatise  on  Masonry  Construction." 

GEORGE  P.  MERRILL 

Author  of  "  Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration."  , 

FREDERICK  W.TAYLOR,  M.E.,and  SANFORD  E.THOMPSON,  S.B.,  C.E. 

Joint  Authors  of  "A  Treatise  on  Concrete,  Plain  and  Reinforced." 


AuthoHties  Cbnsulted— Continued 


A.  W.  BUEL  and  C.  S.  HILL 

Joint  Authors  of  "  Reinforced  Concrete." 

NEWTON  HARRISON,  E.  E. 

Author  of  "  Electric  Wiring,  Diagrams  and  Switchboards." 

FRANCIS  B.  CROCKER,  E.  M.,  Ph.  D. 

Head  of  Department  of  Electrical  Engineering,  Columbia  University  ;  Past  President, 

American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers. 
Author  of  "  Electric  Lighting." 

J.  R.  CRAVATH  and  V.  R.  LANSINGH 

Joint  Authors  of  "  Practical  Illumination." 

JOSEPH  KENDALL  FREITAG,  B.  S.,  C.  E. 

Author  of  "Architectural  Engineering,"  "Fireproofing  of  Steel  Buildings." 

WILLIAM  H.  BIRKMIRE,  C.  E. 

Author  of  "Planning  and  Construction  of  High  Office  Buildings,"  "Architectural  Iron 
and  Steel,  and  Its  Application  in  the  Construction  of  Buildings,"  "Compound 
Riveted  Girders,"  "  Skeleton  Structures,"  etc. 

V* 

EVERETT  U.  CROSBY  and  HENRY  A.  FISKE 

Joint  Authors  of  "  Handbook  of  Fire  Protection  for  Improved  Risk." 

CARNEGIE  STEEL  COMPANY 

Authors  of  "Pocket  Companion,  Containing  Useful  Information  and  Tables  Appertain- 
ing to  the  Use  of  Steel." 

J.  C.  TRAUTWINE,  C.  E. 

Author  of  "  Civil  Engineer's  Pocket-Book." 

ALPHA  PIERCE  JAMISON,  M.  E. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Mechanical  Drawing,  Purdue  University. 
Author  of  "Advanced  Mechanical  Drawing.  " 

FRANK  CHOUTEAU  BROWN 

Architect,  Boston. 

Author  of  "  Letters  and  Lettering." 


Authorities  Consulted— Continued 


HENRY  McGOODWIN 

Author  of  "  Architectural  Shades  and  Shadows." 

VIGNOLA 

Author  of  "The  Five  Orders  of  Architecture."  American  Edition  by  Prsf.  Ware. 

CHAS.  D.  MAGINNIS 

Author  of  "  Pen  Drawing,  An  Illustrated  Treatise." 


FRANZ  S.  MEYER 

Professor  in  the  School  of  Industrial  Art,    Karlsruhe. 
Author  of  "Handbook  of  Ornament,"  American  Edition. 


RUSSELL  STURGIS 

Author  of  "A  Dictionary  of  Architecture  and  Building-,"  and    "How  to  Judge  Archi- 
tecture." 

A.  D.  F.  HAMLIN,  A.  M. 

Professor  of  Architecture  at  Columbia  University. 
Author  of  "  A  Textbook  of  the  History  of  Architecture." 


RALPH  ADAMS  CRAM 

Architect. 

Author  of  "Church  Building." 

C.  H.  MOORE 

Author  of  "  Development  and  Character  of  Gothic  Architecture.'' 


ROLLA  C.  CARPENTER,  C.  E,,  M.  M.  E. 

Professor  of  Experimental  Enprineering.  Cornell  University. 
Author  of  "  Heating  and  Venlilating  Buildings." 


WILLIAM  PAUL  GERHARD 

Author  of  "A  Guide  to  Sanitary  House  Inspection." 

I.  J.  COSGROVE 

Author  of  "  Principles  and  Practice  of  Plumbing." 


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SUMMER  COTTAGE  FOR  THE  MISSES  DUMMER,   AT  HARBOR  POINT,   MICH. 

Poiul  &  Pond,  Arohitfcls,  I'hicafio. 
Built  iu  liiua.    Cost,  $7,300.    Plans  and  Tnicrior  are  Shown  on  Pages  K6  and  ito. 


For  ev/ord 


r  I  IHE  rapid  evolution  of  constructive  methods  in  recent 
^^'.  years,  as  illustrated  in  the  use  of  steel  and  concrete, 
^'  and  the  increased  size  and  complexity  of  buildino-s, 
has  created  the  necessity  for  an  authority  which  shall 
embody  accumulated  experience  and  approved  practice  aloncr  a 
variety  of  correlated  lines.  The  Cyclopedia  of  Architecture, 
Carpentry,  and  Building  is  designed  to  till  this  acknowledo-ed 
need. 

C  There  is  no  industry  that  compares  with  Euildino-  'm  the 
close  interdependence  of  its  subsidiary  trades.  The  Architect, 
for  example,  who  knows  nothing  of  Steel  or  Concrete  con- 
struction is  to-day  as  much  out  of  place  on  important  work 
as  the  Contractor  who  cannot  make  intelligent  estimates,  or  who 
understands  nothing  of  his  legal  rights  and  responsibilities.  A 
carpenter  must  now  know  something  of  Masonry,  Electric  Wiring, 
and,  in  fact,  all  other  trades  employed  in  the  erection  of  a  build- 
ing; and  the  same  is  true  of  all  the  craftsmen  whose  handiwork 
will  enter  into  the  completed  structure. 

C  Neither  pains  nor  expense  have  been  spared  to  make  the 
present  work  the  most  comprehensive  and  authoritative  on  the 
subject  of  Building  and  its  allied  industries.  The  aim  has  been, 
not    merely  to    create  a  work  which  will  appeal    to    the    trained 


expert,  l)iit  one  that  will  coiiiiiu'nd  itself  also  to  tlii'  becrinner 
and  the  self-taught,  practical  man  hy  giving  liiiii  a  workincr 
knowledge  of  the  principles  and  luctiiods,  not  only  of  his  own 
particular  trade,  hut  of  all  other  branches  of  the  ]juilding  Indus- 
try as  well.  The  various  sections  have  1)een  ])repared  especially 
for  home  study,  each  written  by  an  acknowledwd  authority  on 
the  subject.  The  arrangement  of  matter  is  such  as  to  carry  the 
student  forward  by  easy  stages.  Series  of  review  questions  are 
inserted  in  each  volume,  enabling  the  reader  to  test  his  knowl- 
edge and  make  it  a  j)ermanent  j)OSsession.  The  illustrations  have 
been  selected  with  unusual  care  to  elucidate  the  text. 

^  The  work  will  l)e  found  to  cover  many  important  topics  on 
which  little  information  has  heretofore  been  available.  This  is 
especially  apparent  in  such  sections  as  those  on  Steel,  Concrete, 
and  Reinforced  Concrete  Construction;  Building  Superintendence; 
Estimating;  Contracts  and  Specifications,  including  the  princi- 
ples and  methods  of  awarding  and  executing  Government  con- 
tracts;  and  Building  Law. 

^  The  Cyclopedia  is  a  compilation  of  many  of  the  most  valu- 
able Instruction  Papers  of  the  American  School  of  Correspond- 
ence, and  the  method  adopted  in  its  preparation  is  that  which  this 
School  has  developed  and  employed  so  successfully  for  many  years. 
This  method  is  not  an  experiment,  but  has  stood  the  severest  of  all 
tests — that  of  practical  use — which  has  demonstrated  it  to  be  the 
best  yet  devised  for  the  education  of  the  busy  working  man. 

^  In  conclusion,  grateful  acknowledgment  is  due  the  staff  of 
authors  and  collaborators,  without  whose  hearty  co-operation 
this  work  would  have  been  im[)Ossiblc. 


Table    of    Contents 


VOLUME  II 
Carpentry Bu  Gilbert  Townsendi       Page  *11 

Natural  Timber  —  Timber  in  Commercial  Form — Varieties  of  Timber  —  General 
Characteristics  of  Timber  —  The  Steel  Square  —  Laying  Out —  Light  Framing  — 
Joints  and  Splices- The  Wall  — The  Sill  — The  Corner  Posts  — The  Ledger 
Board — The  Plate  —  Braces  —  Studding — Nailing  Surfaces  —  Partitions  — 
Masonry  Walh  — Cap  and  Sole  —  Bridging  ^Shrinkage  and  Settlement  — 
Floors  —  Girders  —  Joists  —  Headers  and  Trimmers  —  The  Roof  —  Varieties  of 
Roofs — The  Rafters — The  Ridge  —  Interior  Supports  —  Dormer  Windows  — 
Rafter  Bevels  —  Common  Rafters  —  Valley  Rafters  —  Hip  Rafters  —  Jack 
Rafters — Backing  of  Rafters  —  Attic  Partitions  ^Battered  Frames  —  Trussed 
Partitions — Inclined  and  Bowled  Floors — Balconies  and  Galleries  —  Timber 
Trusses  —  Towers    and  Steeples — Pendentives  —  Niches  —  Vaults    and    Groins 

Stair-Building      .      By  Fred  T.  Hodgson  and  Morris  Williams        Page  153 

Definition  of  Terms  —  Setting  Out  Stairs  —  Use  of  Pitch-Board  —  Well-Hole  — 
Trimming  — Straight  Flights  —  Dog-Legged  Stairs  —  Platform  Stairs  —  Winding 
Stairs  — Circular  Stairs  —  Elliptical  Stairs — Bullnose  Steps — Open-Newel  Stairs — • 
Stairs  with  Curved  Turns  — Geometrical  Stairs  —Cylinder —  Kerfing — Methods  of 
Strengthening  Stairs  —  Common  Types  of  Stairs  —  Handrailing  —  Wreaths  — 
Projection  —  Tangents  —  Tangent  System  of  Squaring  Wreath  Joints  —  Face- 
Mould — Bevels  to  Square  the  Wreaths —  How  to  Put  Curves  on  the  Face-Mould — 
Arrangement  of  Risers  in  and  around  a  Well-Hole 

Estimating By  Edward  Nichols       Page  229 

Prices  — Catalogues  —  Profit  —  Percentage  —  Duplicate  Parts  —Transportation — 
Approximate  Estimates  —  Estimating  by  the  Square  —  Estimating  by  Quant- 
ities —  Preparation  —  Definitions  —  Units  —  Rules  and  Tables  —  Excavation  — 
Stonework  —  Brickwork  —  Chimneys  —  Flue  Lining  —  Mason's  Supplies —  Cellar 
Columns  —  Drain  Pipe  —  Carpentry  —  Board  Measure  —  Prices  of  Lumber  —  Cost 
of  Frame,  Windows,  Doors,  Stairs,  Inside  and  Outside  Finish  —  Hardware  — 
Roofing  —  Plastering  —  Painting  —  Heating  —  Plumbing  —  Gasfitting — Electrical 
Work  —  Labor  —  Typical  Specimen  of  Estimate  —  Schedules 

The  Steel  Square        ....        Bi/  Morris  Williams        Page  341 

Face  —  Tongue  —  Blade  —  Back  —  Octagon  Scale  —  Brace  Rule  —  Board  Measure 
—  Finding  Miters  and  Lengths  of  Sides  of  Polygons  —  Steel  Square  Applied  to 
Roof  Framing  —  Heel  Cut  of  Common,  Hip,  and  Valley  Rafters  —  Jack  Rafters — 
Roofs  of  Equal  and  Unequal  Pitch 

Review  Questions ,      Page  371 


*For  page  numbers,  see  foot  of  pages. 

■tFor  professional  standing  of  authors,  see  list  of  Authors  and  Collaborators  at 
front  of  volume. 


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CARPENTRY. 

PART    I. 


The  art  of  Carpentry  has  been  practiced  by  men  in  all  ages  and 
in  all  lauds,  and  is  likely  to  continue  as  long  as  there  is  any  timber 
out  of  which  dwellings  and  utensils  can  be  made.  Under  different 
conditions  and  in  widely  separated  parts  of  the  world  there  have 
been  developed  various  methods  of  doing  the  same  work,  and  men 
have  attained  to  various  degrees  of  proficiency  in  the  handling  of 
tools,  and  in  the  making  of  the  tools  themselves.  From  the  time 
when  the  primitive  man  built  himself  a  hut  out  of  brush-wood  and 
mud,  to  the  present  day,  when  we  live  in  comfortable  dwelhngs 
built  of  seasoned  timber-,  there  has  been  constant  progress  and 
development,  so  that  there  has  accumulated  a  vast  amount  of  experi- 
ence to  which  we  are  the  fortunate  heirs. 

The  carpenter  has  always  found  his  material  at  hand,  provided 
by  nature,  and  needing  only  to  be  cut  down  and  shaped  to  suit  his 
purposes.  In  those  places  where  wood  did  not  grow  near  by,  there 
were  no  carpenters ;  but  instead,  workers  in  stone  or  clay. 

A  knowledge  of  the  characteristics  of  wood,  which  plays  so 
important  a  part  in  all  our  lives  and  which  is  so  plentiful  in  our 
own  land,  is  likely  to  prove  of  advantage  to  anyone,  and  is  an  abso- 
lute necessity  to  a  carpenter.  Let  us  therefore,  first  of  all,  devote 
some  space  to  a  consideration  of  timber,  both  in  its  natural  state, 
and  in  its  commercial  form  as  prepared  for  the  market. 

NATURAL  TIMBER. 

Wood  is  one  of  the  most  common  of  building  materials,  and  may 
be  seen  everywhere  in  its  natural  state  as  well  as  in  various  forms 
prepared  for  use.  It  is  all  taken  originally  from  some  kind  of  tree 
or  shrub,  and  a  consideration  of  the  manner  of  growth  of  the  tree 
itself  will  explain  many  peculiarities  and  defects  of  timber  in  its 
commercial  form. 


11 


CARPENTRY 


Classes  of  Trees.  The  trees  from  which  most  of  our  timber  is 
taken  are  of  two  kinds  :  the  "  broad-leaved,"  such  as  the  oak,  poplar, 
and  maple,  and  the  "  conifer  "  or  "  needle-leaved,"  such  as  the  pines, 
the  fir,  and  the  cedar.  In  the  South  some  timber  is  used  which 
comes  from  another  class  of  trees,  of  which  the  palms  are  the  most 
common  representatives ;  the  use  of  this  timber,  however,  is  very 
limited.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  wood  from  the  broad- 
leaved  trees  is  "  hardwood  "  while  that  from  the  conifers  is  "  soft- 
wood," but  this  rule  does  not  hold  true  in  all  cases. 

rianner  of  Growth.  There  is  a  marked  difference  between  the 
three  classes  of  trees  mentioned  above  in  regard  to  tlieir  manner  of 
growth.  While  the  members  of  the  third  class,  the  palms  and 
others,  grow  only  at  the  top,  and  have  the  same  diameter  of  trunk 
after  years  of  development,  the  members  of  the  other  two  classes  in- 
crease in  size  of  trunk  as  well  as  in  height. 
Each  year  a  new  layer  of  wood  is  formed 
on  the  outside  of  the  trunk  and  branches, 
underneath  the  bark,  and  the  age  of  the  tree 
may  usually  be  determined  by  counting  the 
number  of  layers.  In  the  center  of  the  tree 
there  is  always  a  small  whitish  part,  called 
the  "  pith,"  about  which  the  wood  itself  is 

^.     ,    ^    ,.        ._  arranged  in  concentric  rings,  as  shown  in 

Fig.  1.    Section  of  Log.  *=  "  ' 

Fig.  1,  in  which  A  is  the  pith,  B  the  woody 
part  of  the  tree,  and  C  the  bark.  The  arrangement  of  the  wood  in 
concentric  rings  is  due  to  the  fact  tliat  it  was  formed  gradually,  one 
layer  being  added  each  year,  and  for  this  reason  the  rings  or  layers 
are  called  "  annual  rings." 

The  wood  nearest  the  center,  or  pith,  is  considerably  harder  and 
darker  in  color  than  that  which  is  on  the  outside  nearer  the  bark  ; 
it  is  called  the  "  heartwood  "  to  distinguish  it  from  the  other  which 
is  called  the  "  sap  wood."  Only  the  heartwood  should  be  used  for 
building  work.  The  reason  why  it  is  harder  than  the  sapwood  is 
that  it  is  older  and  has  been  compressed  more  and  more  each  year 
as  the  tree  has  increased  in  size,  and  the  pores  have  gradually  become 
filled  up.  The  sapwood  is  soft  and  of  lighter  color  and  shows  that 
it  has  been  recently  formed.  The  time  required  to  transform  the 
wood  from  sapwood  into  heartwood  varies  from  nine  to  thirty-fiva 


IS 


CAIlPE:STilY 


years,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  tree,  and  those  trees  which  per- 
form this  hardening  in  the  shortest  time  are  usually  the  most  durable. 
The  sap  rises  in  the  spring  from  the  roots  of  the  tree  to  the 
branches  and  twigs,  forming  the  leaves,  and  in  the  autumn  it  Hows 
back  acrain  between  the  wood  and  the  bark.  Thus  a  new  annual 
ring  is  formed. 

The  width  of  the  annual  rings  varies  from  ^^  inch  to  ^  inch 
according  to  the  character  of  the  tree  and  the  position  of  the  ring. 
In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  widest  rings  are  found  nearest  the 
center,  or  pith,  and  that  they  grow  regularly  narrower  as  they 
approach  the  bark.  .  Also  they  are  wider  at  the  bottom  of  the  trunk 
than  at  the  top.  The  rings  are 
very  seldom  circular  or  regular  in 
form,  but  follow  the  contour  of 
the  tree  trunk. 

In  addition  to  the  annual 
rings  there  may  be  seen  on  the 
cross-section  of  any  log  other 
lines  which  run  from  the  center 
toward  the  bark  at  right  angles 
to  the  annual  rings.  These  are 
called  the  "  medullary "  rays. 
Usually  they  do  not  extend  to 
the  bark,  but  alternate,  with  others  which  start  at  the  bark  and  run 
inward  toward  the  center  but  are  lost  before  they  reach  the  pith. 
This  is  shown  at  E  and  F  in  Fig.  1. 

Details  of  Structure.  The  two  above-mentioned  classes  of 
wood  differ  considerably  in  their  structure,  that  of  the  conifers  being 
very  simple  and  regular  in  arrangement,  while  that  of  the  broad- 
leaved  trees  is  complex  and  irregular.  The  wood  is  made  up  of 
bundles  of  fibers  or  long  tubes,  parallel  to  the  stem  jf  the  tree,  which 
are  crossed  by  other  fibers  that  form  the  medullary  rays,  passing 
from  the  pith  to  the  bark  and  binding  the  whole  together.  Besides 
these  there  are  resin  ducts  and  other  fibers  scattered  through  the 
trunk  of  the  tree.  The  arrangement  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  A  A  are 
the  long  fibers,  and  B  B  the  pith  or  medullary  fibers.  Of  course 
these  are  so  small  that  the  individual  fibers  cannot  be  distinguished 
without  the  aid  of  a  powerful  microscope.  In  pine  more  than  fifteen 
thousand  pith  rays  occur  on  a  square  inch  of  section. 


Fijr.  2.     Arrangement  of  Fibers. 


13 


CAKPENTIiY 


Grain  of  Wood.  Woods  are  commonly  spoken  of  as  "  fine- 
grained," "  coarse-grained,"  "  cross-grained,"  or  "  straight-grained." 
The  wood  is  said  to  be  fine-grained  when  the  annual  rings  are 
relatively  narrow,  and  coarse-grained  when  these  rings  are  wide. 
Fine-grained  wood  can  be  made  to  take  a  high  polish  while  with 
coarse-grained   wood,  in   general,  this  is    not    possible.     "When  the 

fibers  are  straight,  and  parallel  to 


the  direction  of  the  trunk  of  the 
tree,  the  wood  is  said  to  be 
straight-grained,  but  if  they  are 
distorted  or  if  they  are  twisted 
so  as  to  be  spiral  in  form,  not 
growing  straight  up  but  following 
around  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  the 
wood  is  said  to  be  cross-grained. 


Fig.  3. 


B  C 

Grain  of  Wood. 


In  Fig.  3  are  shown  three  pieces  of  timber  of  which  A  is  absolutely 
cross-grained,  B  is  partially  cross-grained  and,  C  is  straight-grained. 

Defects.  Most  of  the  defects  which  render  timber  unsuitable 
for  building  are  due  to  irregularities  in  the  growth  of  the  tree  from 
which  the  timber  was  taken.  These  defects 
are  known  by  various  names,  such  as  "  Heart- 
shakes," "  Windshakes,"  "  Starshakes,"  and 
"  Knots."  Other  defects  are  due  to  deterior- 
ation of  the  timber  after  it  has  been  in  place 
for  some  time  or  even  before  the  tree  has 
been  felled,  among  which  are  "  Dry  Hot " 
and  "Wet  Rot."  The  defects  of  the  first 
class  are  defects  of  structure  —  those  of  the 
second  class  are  defects  of  the  material  itself. 

Hcnrtshahe.  Fig.  4  shows  what  is  known  as  a  heartsliake. 
There  is  first  a  small  cavity  at  the  heart  of  the  tree  caused  l»y 
decay,  and  flaws  or  cracks  extend  from  it  out  toward  the  bark.  The 
heartshake  is  most  often  found  in  those  trees  which  are  old,  rather 
than  in  young,  vigorous  saplings ;  it  is  especially  to  be  feared  in 
hemlock  timber. 

Wimhhake.  Fig.  5  shows  what  is  known  as  a  wiuvlshake  or 
cupshake.  This  is  caused  by  a  separation  of  the  annual  rings  one 
from  another  so  that  a  crack  is  formed  in  the  body  of  the  tree ,  this 


Fig.  4.   Heartshake. 


14 


CATJPEXTRV 


Fig.  5.  Windsliake. 


crack  may  extend  for  a  considerable  distance  up  the  trunk.  This 
defect  is  said  to  be  caused  by  the  expansion  of  the  sapwood,  and  it 
is  also  claimed  that  it  is  caused  by  the  wrenching  to  which  the  tree 
is  subjected  by  high  winds.  Wiudshakes  are  very  often  found  in 
pine  timber. 

A  starshake  is  very  much  like  a  heartshake,  the  chief  difference 
being  that  the  starshake  cracks  extend  right  across  the  center  of  the 
trunk  without  any  appearance  of  decay  at  that  point. 

Dry  rot  in  timber  is  caused  by  a 
fungus  growth,  and  takes  place  most 
readily  when  the  timber  is  in  such  a 
position  that  it  is  alternately  wet  and 
dry.  If  wood  is  kept  perfectly  dry,  or,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  kept  constantly  under 
water,  it  will  last  indefinitely  without  any 
sign  of  rot.  For  this  reason  piles  should 
always  be  cut  off  below  the  water  level. 
Decay  takes  place  very  rapidly  when  the 
wood  is  in  a  confined  position,  as  when 
buried  in  a  brick  wall,  so  that  the  gases  cannot  escape.  Tt  is  also 
hastened  by  warmth,  and  is  much  more  common  in  the  South  than 
in  the  northern  states.  Decay  may  be  prevented  by-introducing  into 
the  timber  certain  salts,  such  as  the  salts  of  mercury.  It  may  also 
be  prevented  by  heating  the  wood  to  a  temperature  above  150  degrees 
Fahrenheit  and  maintaining  that  temperature.  All  wood  should  be 
perfectly  seasoned  before  being  painted,  and  good  ventilation  should 
always  be  provided  for.  Wood  should  be  especially  protected  when- 
ever in  contact  with  masonry  from  which  it  may  absorb  moisture. 

Wet  rot  is  a  form  of  decay  which  takes  place  in  the  growing 
tree.  It  is  caused  by  the  tree  becoming  saturated  with  water,  as  in  a 
swamp  or  bog,  and  it  may  be  communicated  from  one  piece  of  timber 
to  another  by  contact. 

Warping  in  timber  is  the  result  of  the  evaporation  or  drying 
out  of  the  water  which  is  held  in  the  cell  walls  of  the  wood  in  its 
natural  state,  and  the  consequent  shrinkage  of  the  piece.  If  timber 
were  perfectly  regular  in  structure,  so  that  the  shrinkage  would  be 
the  same  in  every  part,  there  would  be  no  warping ;  but  wood  is 
made  up  of  a  large  number  of  fibers,  the  walls  of  which  are  of  differ- 


15 


8 


CARPENTRY 


ent  thickness  in  different  parts  of  the  tree  or  log,  so  that  in  drying 
one  part  shrinks  much  more  than  another.  Since  the  wood  is  rigid, 
one  part  cannot  shrink  or  swell  without  changing  the  shape  of  the 
whole  piece,  because  the  block  as  a  whole  must  adjust  itself  to  the 
new  conditions ;  consequently  the  timber  warps. 

In  Fig.  6,  if  the  fibers  in  the  top  portion  of  tl>e  piece  near  the 
face  ah  e  happen  to  have,  on  the  average,  thicker  walls  than  those 


Fig.  6. 

in  the  bottom  portion,  near  the  face  c  d  g,  the  top  part  will  shrink 
more  than  the  bottom ;  the  distance  a  h,  originally  equal  to  the  dis- 
tance c  d,  becomes  smaller^nd  the  shape  of  the  whole  piece  changes, 
as  show^n  in  Fig.  7. 

The  only  way  in  which  warping  can  be  prevented  is  to  have  the 
timber  thoroughly  dried  out  before  it  is  used.  After  it  is  once  thor- 
oughly seasoned  it  will  not  warp  unless  it  is  allowed  to  absorb  more 
moisture.  .  All  wood  that  is  to  be  used  for  fine  work,  where  any  warp- 
ing after  it  is  in  place  will  spoil  the  appearance  of  the  whole  job, 
must  be  so  seasoned,  eitlier  in  the  open  air  or  in  a  specially  prepared 
kiln. 

The  wood  of  the  "  conifers,"  whicli  is  very  regular  in  its  struc- 
ture, shrinks  more  evenly  and  warps  less  than  the  wood  of  the  broad- 
leaved  trees  with  its  more  complex  and  irregular  structure.  Sapwood, 
also,  as  a  rule  shrinks  more  than  does  heartwood. 

Checks  also  are  due  to  the  uneven  shrinkage  of  timber.  In  any 
log  there  is  a  chance  for  the  wood  to  shrink  in  two  directions  —  alone: 
the  radial  lines  following  the  direction  of  the  medullary  rays,  and 
around  the  circumference  of  the  log,  following  the  direction  of  the 
annual  rings.  If  the  wood  shrinks  in  both  directions  at  the  same 
rate,  the  only  result  will  be  a  decrease  in  the  volume  of  the  log,  but 
if  it  shrinks  more  rapidly  in  one  of  these  directions  than  it  does  in 


16 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  8.  Cracks  Caused  by  Shrinkage. 


the  ether,  the  log  must  crack  around  the  outside  as  shown  in  Fig.  8. 
This  cracking  is  called  "  checking,"  and  is  likely  to  take  jjlace.     In 

timber  which  has  been  pre- 
pared for  the  market  it  shows 
itself  in  the  form  of  cracks 
which  extend  along  the  faces 
of  solid  square  timbers  and 
boards,  and  seriously  impairs 
the  strength.  Tig.  9  shows 
checks  in  a  square  post  or 
column. 
Knots  are  very  common  in  all  timber.  They  are  formed  at  the 
junction  of  the  main  tree  trunk  and  a  branch  or  limb.  At  such 
points  the  fibers  in  the  main  trunk,  near  the  place  where  the 
branch  comes  in,  do  not  follow  straight  along  up  the 
trunk,  but  are  turned  aside  and  follow  alon£r  the 
branch  as  shown  in  Fig.  10.  Frequently  a  branch 
may  be  broken  off  near  the  trunk  while  the  tree  is 
still  young,  and  the  tree  continue  to  grow.  The  trunk 
will  increase  in  size  until  the  end  of  the  branch, 
which  was  left  behind  buried  in  the  main  trunk,  is 
entirely  covered  up.  Meanwhile  the  end  of  the 
branch  dies  and  a  knot  is  formed.  This  bit  of  dead 
wood  has  no  connection  with  the  living  wood  about 
it.  In  time  it  works  loose,  and  when  the  tree  is 
sawed  up  into  boards  the  knot  may  drop  out.     A 


Fig.  9.     Checks 
in  Square  Post. 


knot  does  not  seriously  impair  a  piece  subjected  to  a  compressive 
stress,  so  long  as  it  remains  in  place,  but  it  greatly 
weakens  a  piece  subjected  to  tension.  A  knot  always 
spoils  the  appearance  of  any  wood  which  is  to  be 
polished. 

TIMBER   IN   ITS  COMMERCIAL  FORM. 

Conversion  of  Timber.  Timber  may  be  found  in 
lumber  yards  in  certain  shapes  ready  for  use,  having 
been  cut  from  the  logs  and  relieved  of  the  outside 
covering,  or  bark.  There  are  various  methods  of  cut- 
ting  up  the  logs  to  form   boards,  planks  and  heavy 


Fig.  10.  Knots. 


timbers.     If  the  log  is  to  be  squared  off  to  form  but 


17 


10 


CARPENTRY 


in  Fig.  11 


one  heavy  beam,  a  good  rule  to  follow  is  to  divide  the  diameter 
into  three  equal  parts,  and  draw  perpendiculars  to  the  diameter  at 
these  points,  one  on  each  side  of  the  diameter,  as  shown  at  A  and  B 
The  points  c  and  d  in  which  these  perpendiculars  cut 
the  circumference  of  the  tree  trunk^ 
together  with  the  points  &  and  /  in  which 
the  chosen  diameter  cuts  the  circum- 
ference of  the  tree  trunk,  will  be  the  four 
corners  of  the  timber.  The  lines  joining 
these  points  will  give  an  outline  of  the 
timber.  This  will  be  found  to  be  the 
largest  and  best  timber  which  can  be  cut 
from  the  log. 


Fig.  11.  Squaring  off  a  Log. 

Another  good  rule  is  to  divide  the  diameter  of  the  log  into  four 
equal  parts  and  proceed  in  the  same  way  as  described  above,  using 
the  outside  quarter  points  on  the  diameter  as  shown  in  Fig.  12.  This 
method  will  give  a  stiffer  beam  but  it  will  not  be  so  strong. 

In  Fig.  13  are  shown  several  different  methods  of  cutting 
planks  from  a  log.  First  it  is  divided  into  quarters,  and  the  planks 
are  cut  out  as  shown.  The  method  shown  at  A,  called  "  quarter 
sawing,"  is  the  best.  All  the  planks  are  cut  radiating  from  the 
center  and  there  will  be  no  splitting  and  warping.  A  fairly  good 
method  is  that  shown  at  B,  where  the  planks  are  pretty  nearly  in 
radial  lines  and  may  be  much  more  easily 
cut  out  than  can  those  shown  at  A.  The 
method  shown  at  C  is  a  common  one  and 
leads  to  fairly  good  results,  although  only 
the  plank  in  the  center  is  on  a  radial  line. 
It  is  practically  as  good  a  method  as  that  I 
shown  at  B  and  is  much  more  simple. 
The  method  shown  at  D  is  not  so  good 
as  the  others ;  planks  cut  in  this  way 
being  very  liable  to  warp  and  twist.  If 
the  silver  grain,  caused  by  the  cutting  of 
the  medullary  rays,  is  desired,  the  planks  should  be  cut  as  at  A  or  B. 

Planks  may  sometimes  be  simply  sliced  from  tlie  log  as  shown 
in  Fig.  14,  without  first  dividing  it  into  quarters.  This  is  the  worst 
possible  way  to  cut  them,  as  the  natural  tendency  of  the  timber  to 


Fig.  12.  Squaring  off  a  Log. 


18 


CARPEXTRY 


11 


shrink  causes  the  planks  to  curl  up  as  shown  in  Fi".  15.  It  is 
almost  impossible  to  flatten  them  out  again  and  they  cannot  be  used 
as  they  are. 

VARIETIES   OF  TIMBER. 

There  are  a  great  many  different  kinds  of  timber  growinf^  in 
the  United  States,  and  a  considerable  quantity  is  imported  from 
other  countries.  Each  variety  possesses  certain  characteristics 
which  render  it  especially  suitable  for  use  in  one  part  of  the  build- 


Fig.  13.    Quarter  Sawiug.  Fig.  14.   Straight  Sawing. 

ing,  while  the  same  peculiarities  of  growth  or  of  texture  may  unfit 
it  for  use  in  another  place. 

For  timbers  which  are  to  be  partly  buried  in  the  ground  a 
wood  is  required  which  is  able  to  withstand  the  deteriorating  effects 
of  contact  with  the  earth  ;  and  for  this  purpose  chestnut,  white  cedar, 
cypress,  redwood  or  locust  may  be  used. 

For  light  framing  we  need  a  cheap,  light  wood  free  from  struc- 
tural defects  such  as  knots  and  shakes,  and  which  can  be  obtained 
in  fairly  long,  straight  pieces.  Spruce,  yellow  pine,  white  pine  and 
hemlock  all  satisfy  these  requirements  fairly  well,  spruce  being  per- 
haps a  little  better  than  the  others,  and  at  any  rate  more  popular. 

For  heavy  framing,  such  as  wooden  trusses,  girders  and  posts, 
we  require  a  strong  timber  and  one  which  can  be  obtained  in  lar'^e, 
long  pieces.  Georgia  pine,  Oregon  pine  and  white  oak  may  all  be 
used  for  such  work,  and  also  Xorway  pine  and 
Canadian  red  pine. 

A  wood  which  is  easily  worked  and  which 
will  also  withstand  the  effects  of  the  weather 


Fig.  15. 


is  needed  for  the  outside  finish ;  for  this  we  select  white  pine  and 


19 


12  CARPENTRY 


also  cypress  and  redwood.  The  same  woods  are  used  for  shingles, 
clapboards  and  siding,  with  the  addition  of  cedar  for  sliingles,  and 
sometimes  Oregon  pine  and  spruce  for  siding. 

For  the  interior  finish  is  cliosen  a  wood  which  will  make  a 
pleasing  appearance,  and  which  will  take  a  polish ;  while  for  floors, 
hardness  and  resistance  to  wear  are  the  further  requirements.  For 
floors,  oak,  hard  pine,  and  maple  are  good ;  and  for  the  rest  of  the 
interior  finish,  white  pine,  cypress  and  redwood,  or  any  of  the  hard 
woods  such  as  ash,  butternut,  cherry  and  mahogany,  may  be 
selected. 

Some  of  the  more  important  varieties  of  timber  usad  in  car- 
pentry will  now  be  mentioned,  and  a  brief  description  of  each  kind 
given  to  convey  an  idea  of  its  characteristics  and  the  part  of  the 
country  from  which  it  comes. 

EVERGREENS   OR   CONIFERS. 

Cedar.  There  are  five  different  kinds  of  white  cedar  in  the 
United  States,  of  which  four  are  different  species  of  the  white  cedar, 
and  the  fifth  is  what  is  known  as  "  canoe  "  cedar.  The  wood  is  not 
very  strong,  but  is  light  and  soft,  possessing  considerable  stiffness 
and  a  fine  texture.  In  color  it  is  grayish  brown,  the  sapwood  being, 
however,  of  a  lighter  shade  than  the  heartwood.  It  seasons  quickly, 
is  very  durable  and  does  not  shrink  or  check  to  any  great  extent. 
Its  principal  use  in  carpentry  is  for  shingles,  for  w^iich  its  durability 
makes  it  especially  valuable,  and  for  posts  and  ties.  The  trees  are 
usually  scattered  among  others  of  different  kinds,  forming  occasion- 
ally, however,  quite  considerable  forests.  They  are  found  all  through 
the  northern  part  of  the  country  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  in  Cali- 
fornia, Oregon  and  Washington.  Some  of  the  trees  are  of  medium 
size  while  others  are  very  large,  especially  the  canoe  cedar  in  the 
Northwest. 

In  addition  to  the  white  cedars,  there  are  the  red  cedars,  which 
are  similar  to  the  others,  but  have  a  somewhat  finer  texture.  There 
are  two  varieties,  the  red  cedar  and  redwood,  the  former  found  prin- 
cipally in  the  southern  states  and  the  latter  only  in  California.  Eed 
cedar  is  used  but  little  in  building  construction  except  for  cabinet 
work  and  veneers,  but  redwood  has  been  used  extensively  in  the 
West  for  outside  finish,  shingles  and  clapboards.     Its  resistance  to 


80 


CARPENTRY  13 


fire  is  remarkable,  which  makes  it  valuable  for  the  exterior  of  dwell- 
ings, but  it  is  too  soft  for  interior  finish. 

Cypress.  This  wood  is  found  in  the  southern  states  only, 
where  it  grows  in  the  swamp  land  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers. 
Although  there  are  a  great  many  varieties,  they  are  similar  in  their 
general  characteristics  and  differ  only  in  quality.  "  Gulf  cypress," 
growing  near  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  is  the  best.  The  timber  is  light, 
straight-grained  and  soft,  and  is  used  for  shingles  and  siding,  water 
tables,  sills  and  gutters.  It  does  not  warp  and  shows  great  resist- 
ance to  dampness. 

Hemlock.  There  are  two  varieties  of  hemlock,  one  found  in 
the  northern  states,  from  Maine  to  Minnesota,  and  also  along  the 
Alleghanies,  southward  to  Georgia  and  Alabama;  and  the  other 
found  in  the  West,  from  Washington  to  California,  and  eastward  to 
Montana.  The  eastern  tree  is  smaller  than  the  western,  and  its  wood 
is  lighter  and  softer  and  generally  inferior.  The  timber  is  of  a  light 
reddish-gray  color,  fairly  durable,  but  shrinks  and  checks  badly,  and 
is  rough,  brittle,  and  usually  cross-grained.  It  is  sometimes  used  in 
the  East  for  cheap  framing,  but  it  is  so  liable  to  imperfections  such 
as  windshakes  and  starshakes  that  it  is  not  suitable  for  this  purpose. 
It  is  often  used  for  rough  boarding  or  sheathing. 

Spruce.  There  are  three  kinds  of  spruce  —  white,  black,  and 
red,  of  which  the  white  spruce  is  the  variety  commonly  found  on  the 
market.  The  wood  is  light  and  soft,  but  fairly  strong,  and  is  of  a 
whitish  color.  It  is  much  used  in  the  northeastern*  states  for  light 
framincT,  but  can  be  obtained  only  in  small  sizes.  It  is  considered 
by  many  to  be  the  best  framing  timber,  excepting  the  pines. 

The  white  spruce  is  found  scattered  throughout  all  of  the  north- 
ern states,  along  the  streams  and  lakes,  the  larger  varieties  being  in 

Montana. 

The  black  spruce  is  found  in  Canada  and  in  some  of  the  north- 
em  states.     It  is  distinguished  from  the  other  varieties  only  by  its 

leaves  and  bark. 

The  red  spruce  is  sametimes  known  as  Newfoundland  red  pine 
and  is  found  in  the  northeastern  part  of  North  America.  Its  wood 
is  similar  to  the  black  spruce. 

Pines.  There  are  two  distinct  classes  of  pines  used  in  building 
work,  the  soft  and  the  hard  pines,  both  of  which  are  found  in  great 


21 


14  CARPENTRY 


abundance  scattered  over  the  whole  of  the  United  States.  Tlie  great 
variety  of  uses  to  which  pine  timber  may  be  apphed  in  building  con- 
struction and  the  ease  with  wliich  it  can  be  cut  and  shipped  to  mar- 
ket, make  it  the  most  popular  wood  in  use  at  the  present  time.  The 
softer  varieties  are  used  for  outside  finishing  of  all  sorts,  and  the 
harder  kinds  for  heavy  framing  and  for  flooring.  The  tree  itself  is 
very  tall,  with  a  straight  trunk  and  few  branches,  so  that  timbers 
can  be  obtained  in  large  sizes  and  great  lengths.  There  are  many 
different  kinds  of  pines,  which  are  recognized  in  various  parts  of  the 
country  under  various  names,  but  there  are  five  general  classes  into 
which  the  species  is  commonly  divided,  though  the  same  timber  may 
be  called  by  dift'erent  names  in  two  different  localities,  as  will  be  seen. 

1.  The  term  "hard  pine"  is  used  to  designate  any  pine  which 
is  not  white  pine,  and  is  a  very  general  classification,  thougli  it  is 
often  met  with  in  specifications  and  in  works  on  Carpentry. 

2.  "White  pine,"  "soft  pine  "  and  "pumpkin  pine"  are  terms 
which  are  used  in  the  eastern  states  for  the  timber  from  the  white 
pine  tree,  while  on  the  I'acific  coast  the  same  terms  refer  to  the  wood 
of  the  sugar  pine. 

3.  The  name  "  yellow  pine "  when  used  in  the  northeastern 
part  of  the  country  applies  almost  always  to  the  pitch  pine  or  to  one 
of  the  southern  pines,  but  in  the  West  it  refers  to  the  bull  pine. 

4.  "  Georgia  pine  "  or  "  longleaf  yellow  pine  "  is  a  term  used  to 
distinguish  the  southern  hard  pine  which  grows  in  tlie  coast  region 
from  North  Carolina  to  Texas,  and  which  furnishes  the  strongest  pine 
lumber  on  the  market. 

5.  "  Pitch  pine  "  may  refer  to  any  of  the  southern  pines,  or  to 
pitch  pine  proper,  which  is  found  along  tbe  coast  from  New  York  to 
Georgia  and  among  the  mountains  of  Kentucky. 

Of  the  soft  pines  there  are  two  Kinds,  the  white  pine  and  the 
sugar  pine,  the  latter  being  a  western  tree  found  in  Oregon  and  Cali- 
fornia, while  the  former  is  found  in  all  the  northern  states  from  Maine 
to  Minnesota.  There  is  also  a  smaller  species  of  white  pine  found 
along  the  Rocky  Mountain  slopes  from  Montana  to  New  Mexico. 

There  are  ten  different  varieties  of  hard  pine,  of  which,  however, 
only  five  are  of  practical  importance  in  the  building  industry.  These 
are  the  "  longleaf  southern  pine,"  the  "  shortleaf  southern  pine,"  the 
"  yellow  pine,"  the  "  loblolly  pine  "  and  the  "  Norway  pine." 


22 


CARPENTRY  15 


The  longleaf  pine,  also  known  as  the  "  Georgia  pine,"  the  "  yel- 
low pine  ■'  and  the  "  long  straw  pine,"  is  a  large  tree,  which  forms  ex- 
tensive for^ists  in  the  coast  region  from  North  Carolina  to  Texas.  It 
yields  very  hard,  strong  timber  which  can  be  obtained  in  long,  straight 
pieces  of  very  large  size. 

The  loblolly  pine  is  also  a  large  tree,  but  has  more  sapwood  than 
the  longleaf  pine,  and  is  coarser,  lighter  and  softer.  It  is  the  com- 
mon lumber  pine  from  Virginia  to  South  Carolina,  and  is  also  found 
in  Texas  and  Arkansas.  It  is  known  as  well  by  the  name  of  "  slash 
pine,"  "  old  field  pine,  ''  "  rosemary  pine,"  "  sap  pine,"  and  "  short 
straw  pine,"  and  in  the  West  as  the  Texas  pine. 

The  shortleaf  pine  is  much  like  the  loblolly  pine  and  is  the  chief 
lumber  tree  of  Missouri  and  Arkansas.  It  is  also  found  in  North 
Carolina  and  Texas. 

The  Norway  pine  is  a  northern  tree  found  in  Canada  and  the 
northern  states.  It  never  forms  forests,  but  is  scattered  among  other 
trees,  and  sometimes  forms  small  groves.  The  wood  is  fine-grained 
and  of  a  white  color,  but  is  largely  sapwood  and  is  not  durable. 

BROAD-LEAVED  TREES. 

Ash  is  a  wood  that  is  frequently  employed  for  interior  finishing 
in  public  buildings,  such  as  schoolhouses,  and  in  the  cheaper  classes 
of  dwelling  houses.  It  is  one  of  the  cheapest  of  the  hard  woods ;  it 
is  strong,  straight-grained  and  tough,  but  is  coarse  in  texture.  It 
shrinks  moderately,  seasons  with  little  injury,  and  will  take  a  good 
polish.  The  trees  do  not  grow  together  in  forests,  but  are  scattered. 
They  grow  rapidly,  and  attain  only  medium  height.  Of  the  six 
different  species  found  in  the  United  States,  only  two,  the  "  white 
ash  "  and  the  "  black  ash,"  are  used  extensively  in  building  work. 
The  first  is  more  common  in  the  basin  of  the  Ohio  liiver,  but  is 
also  found  in  the  North  from  Maine  to  Minnesota,  and  in  the  South, 
in  Texas.  The  black  ash  is  found  from  Maine  to  Minnesota,  and 
southward  to  Virginia  and  Arkansas.  There  is  very  little  difference 
between  the  two  species.  The  black  ash  is  also  known  as  the 
"  hoop  ash  "  and  the  "  ground  ash." 

Beech.  Another  wood  used  to  some  extent  for  inside  finish  is 
the  beech.  It  is  heavy,  hard  and  strong,  but  of  coarse  texture  like 
the  ash.     In  color  it  is  light  brown,  or  white.     It  shrinks  and  checks 


23 


16  CARPENTRY 


during  the  process  of  drying  and  is  not  dura^^le  tvlien  placed  in  con- 
tact with  the  ground.  It  works  easily,  stands  well,  and  ta'ces  a  good 
polish. 

Birch  is  a  very  handsome  wood  of  a  brown  color  and  with  a 
satiny  luster.  It  takes  a  good  polish,  works  easily,  and  does  not 
warp  after  it  is  in  place,  but  it  is  not  durable  if  exposed.  It  is  used 
quite  extensively  for  inside  finish,  and  to  imitate  cherry  and  mahog- 
any, as  it  has  a  grain  which  is  very  similar  to  the  grain  of  these 
woods.  The  trees  are  of  medium  size  and  form  large  forests.  They 
are  found  throughout  the  eastern  payt  of  the  United  States. 

Butternut  is  also  used  as  afiuish'mg  wood,  and  is  cheaper  than 
many  of  the  other  harder  woods.  It  is  light,  but  not  strong,  and  is 
fairly  soft.  In  color  it  is  light  brown.  The  trees,  of  medium  size, 
are  found  in  the  eastern  states  from  Maine  to  Georgia. 

Cherry  is  a  wood  which  is  frequently  used  as  a  finishing  wood 
for  the  interior  of  dwellings  and  of  cars  and  steamers  ;  but  owing  to 
the  fact  that  it  can  be  obtained  only  in  narrow  boards,  it  is  most  suit- 
able for  moulded  work,  and  work  which  is  mufeh  cut  up.  The  wood 
is  heavy,  hard,  strong  and  of  fine  texture.  The  heartwood  is  of  a 
reddis'h  brown  color,  while  the  sapwood  is  yellowish  white.  It  is 
very  handsome  and  takes  a  good  polish,  works  easily  and  stands 
well.  It  shrinks  considerably  in  drying.  The  timber  is  cut  from 
the  wild  black  cherry  tree,  which  is  of  medium  size  and  found  scat- 
tered among  the  other  broad-leaved  trees  along  the  western  slope  of 
the  Alleglianies  and  as  far  west  as  Texas. 

Chestnut  timber  is  used  in  cabinet  work,  for  interior  finishing, 
and  sometimes  for  heavy  construction.  It  is  light,  fairly  soft,  but 
not  strong.  It  has  a  rather  coarse  texture,  works  easily  and  stands 
well,  but  shrinks  and  checks  in  drying.  The  timber  is  very  durable. 
The  tree  grows  in  the  region  of  the  Alleglianies,  from  Maine  to 
Michigan,  and  southward  to  Alabama. 

Elm.  There  are  five  species  of  elm  trees  in  the  United  States, 
scattered  throughout  the  eastern  and  central  states.  I'lie  trees  are 
usually  large  and  of  rapid  growth,  and  do  not  form  forests.  The 
timber  is  hard  and  tough,  frequently  cross-grained,  hard  to  work,  and 
shrinks  and  checks  in  drying.  The  wood  has  not  been  used  very 
extensively  in  building,  but  has  a  beautiful  figured  grain,  can  take  a 
high  polish,  and  is  well  adapted  to  staining.  The  texture  is  coarse 
to  fine,  and  the  color  is  brown  with  shades  of  gray  and  red. 


24 


CARPENTRY  17 


Gum.  The  wood  of  the  gum  tree  is  used  extensively  for  cabinet 
work,  furniture,  and  interior  finish.  It  is  of  fine  texture  and  handsome 
appearance,  heavy,  quite  soft,  yet  strong,  and  reddish  brown  in  color. 
It  warps  and  checks  badly,  is  not  durable  if  exposed,  and  is  hard  to 
work.  The  species  of  gum  tree  used  in  carpentry  is  the  sweet  gum, 
which  is  of  medium  size,  with  straight  trunk;  it  does  not  form 
forests,  though  it  is  quite  abundant  east  of  the  Mississippi  Eiver. 

riaple.  Almost  all  of  the  maple  usedin  building  work  comes  from 
the  sugar  maple  tree,  which  is  most  abundant  in  the  region  of  the  Great 
Lakes,  but  which  is  also  found  from  Alaine  to  Minnesota,  and  south- 
ward to  Florida.  The  trees  are  of  medium  to  large  size,  and  form 
quite  considerable  forests.  The  wood  is  heavy  and  strong,  of  fine 
texture,  and  often  has  a  fine  wavy  grain  which  gives  the  effect  known 
as  "  curly."  It  is  of  a  creamy  white  color,  shrinks  moderately,  works 
easily  and  takes  a  good  polish.  It  is  often  used  for  flooring,  and 
sometimes  for  other  inside  finish. 

Oak.  There  are  about  twenty  different  kinds  of  oak  to  be 
found  in  various  parts,  of  the  United  States,  but  there  are  three  dis- 
tinctly different  species,  which  are  sold  separately.  These  are  the 
"  white  oak,"  the  "  red  oak  "  and  the  "  live  oak."  The  red  oak  is 
usually  more  porous,  less  durable  and  of  coarser  texture  than  the 
white  oak  or  the  live  oak.  The  trees  are  of  medium  size  and  form  a 
large  proportion  of  all  the  broad-leaved  forests.  Live  oak  was  once 
extensively  used,  but  has  become  scarce  and  is  now  expensive.  Both 
the  red  oak  and  the  white  oak  are  used  for  inside  finishing,  but  they 
are  liable  to  shrink  and  crack  and  must  therefore  be  thoroughly 
seasoned.  They  are  of  slightly  different  color,  the  white  oak  having 
a  straw  color  while  the  red  oak  has  a  reddish  tinge,  so  that  they  can- 
not be  used  together  where  the  work  is  to  be  finished  by  polishing. 
Oak  is  always  better  if  quarter-sawed,  when  it  shows  what  is  known 
as  the  "  silver  grain." 

Poplar.  This  wood  is  also  known  as  "  whitewood  "  and  "  tulip 
wood."  •  There  are  a  number  of  different  varieties  growing  in  various 
parts  of  the  country.  The  tree  is  large,  and  is  most  common  in  the 
Ohio  Basin,  but  does  not  form  forests.  The  wood  is  light,  soft,  free 
from  knots,  and  of  fine  texture.  In  color  it  is  white,  or  yellowish- 
white,  and  frequently  it  has  a  satiny  luster.  It  can  be  so  finished 
as  to  retain  its  natural  appearance,  but  it  is  often  stained  to  imitate 


25 


18  CAIirENTKY 


some  of  the  more  costly  woods,  such  as  cherry.  It  is  used  exten- 
sively for  cheap  inside  finish  and  fittings,  such  as  shelving,  and  some- 
times for  doors,  but  it  warps  badly  if  it  is  not  thoroughly  seasoned. 

Sycamore  is  frequently  used  for  finishing,  and  is  a  very  hand- 
some wood.  It  is  heavy,  hard,  strong,  of  coarse  texture,  and  is  usually 
cross-grained.  It  is  hard  to  work,  and  shrinks,  warps,  and  checks 
considerably.  The  tree  is  of  large  size  and  rapid  growth,  found  in 
all  parts  of  the  eastern  United  States,  but  is  most  common  along  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi  Rivers. 

Black  Walnut  is  a  wood  which  has  been  and  is  still  used  very 
extensively  for  interior  finishing  and  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture. 
It  is  a  heavy,  hard  timber,  of  coarse  texture,  and  of  a  dark-brown 
color.  Very  handsome  pieces  having  a  beautiful  figure,  may  be 
selected  for  veneers  for  furniture  and  cabinet  work.  Although  the 
wood  shrinks  somewhat  in  drying,  it  works  easily,  stands  well,  and 
will  take  a  very  good  polish.  The  tree  is  large  and  of  rapid  growth. 
It  was  formerly  very  abundant  in  the  Alleghany  region,  and  was  found 
from  New  England  to  Texas  and  from  Michigan  to  Florida,  but  it  is 
now  becoming  scarcer  and  the  timber  is  expensive. 

Imported  Timber.  Besides  the  woods  which  grow  in  the 
United  States,  a  number  of  others  are  brought  in  from  foreign  lands 
for  use  in  the  best  grade  of  public  buildings  and  private  residences. 
The  most  popular  of  these  are  the  mahogany,  rosewood,  satinwood, 
French  burl,  and  Circassian  walnut. 

Mahogany  comes  from  Cuba  and  Mexico,  and  formerly  was 
obtained  also  from  Santo  Domingo  and  Honduras.  It  is  generally 
imported  in  the  rough  log  and  cut  up  by  the  purchasers  as  it  is 
required.  The  wood  is  easy  to  work,  will  take  an  excellent  polish, 
and  stays  in  place  very  well  if  it  is  well  seasoned.  It  varies  in  color 
from  very  light  to  deep  red  and  becomes  darker  witli  age.  It  is 
usually  employed  in  the  form  of  veneers  on  account  of  its  cost. 

Satinwood  comes  from  the  West  Indies,  French  burl  from  Per- 
sia, and  Circassian  walnut  from  near  the  Black  Sea.  They  are  all 
very  expensive  and  are  used  only  as  veneers,  and  in  only  the  finest 

work. 

GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS   OF   TIMBER. 

In  speaking  of  wood  we  are  accustomed  to  use  certain  words  to 
express   our   idea  of  its  mechanical   properties,  or   of   its   probable 


26 


CARPENTRl  1;) 


behavior  under  certain  conditions.  Thus  we  say  that  a  wood  is  hard, 
or  tough,  or  brittle,  or  flexible,  and  frequently  we  use  tliese  terras 
without  having  a  clear  understanding  of  just  what  they  mean.  A 
very  brief  discussion  of  some  of  these  properties  or  characteristics  of 
timber  will  now  be  given  in  order  that  we  may  see  what  peculiarities 
of  structure  or  of  growth  cause  them. 

Hardness.  If  a  block  of  wood  is  struck  with  a  hammer  when 
lying  on  a  bench,  the  hammer-head  will  make  an  impression  or 
dent  in  the  wood,  which  will  be  deeper  or  shallower  according  as 
the  wood  is  soft  or  hard.  A  wood  is  said  to  be  very  hard  when  it 
requires  a  pressure  of  about  3,000  pounds  per  square  inch  to  make 
an  impression  one-twentieth  of  an  inch  deep.  A  hard  wood  requires 
only  about  2,500  pounds  to  produce  the  same  effect.  Fairly  hard 
wood  will  be  indented  by  a  pressure  of  1,500  pounds,  and  soft  woods 
require  even  less.  Maple,  oak,  elm  and  hickory  are  very  hard;  ash, 
cherry,  birch  and  walnut  are  hard ;  the  best  qualities  of  pine  and 
spruce  are  fairly  hard ;  and  hemlock,  poplar,  redwood  and  butternut 
are  soft. 

Toughness.  "  Toughness  "  is  a  word  which  is  often  used  in 
relation  to  timber,  and  implies  both  strength  and  pliability,  such  as 
is  found  in  the  wood  of  the  elm  and  hickory.  Such  timber  will 
withstand  the  effect  of  jars  and  shocks  which  would  cause  other 
woods,  like  pine,  to  be  shattered. 

Flexibility.  Timber  is  said  to  be  flexible  when  it  bends  before 
breaking  instead  of  breaking  off  short,  or,  in  other  words,  a  flexi- 
ble wood  is  the  opposite  of  one  which  is  brittle.  The  harder  woods, 
taken  from  the  broad-leaved  trees,  are  usually  more  flexible  than  the 
softer  woods,  taken  from  the  cone-bearing  trees.  The  wood  of  the 
main  tree  trunk  is  more  flexible  than  that  of  the  limbs  and  branches, 
and  moist  timber  is  more  flexible  than  dry  wood.  Hickory  is  one  of 
the  most  flexible  woods. 

Cleavage.  Most  woods  split  very  easily  along  the  grain,  espe- 
cially when  the  arrangement  of  the  fibers  is  simple,  as  in  the  conifers. 
In  splitting  with  an  axe,  the  axe-head  acts  as  a  wedge  and  forces  the 
fibers  apart,  and  usually  the  split  runs  along  some  distance  ahead  of 
the  axe.  Hard  woods  do  not  split  so  easily  as  soft  woods,  and 
seasoned  wood  not  so  easily  as  green  wood,  while  all  timber  splits 
most  easily  along  radial  lines. 


87 


20 


CARPENTRY 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE. 

If  it  is  important  that  a  workman  should  know  his  material 
thoroughly,  it  is  even  more  essential  that  he  should  understand  his 
tools  and  be  able  to  apply  them  in  the  most  useful  way  to  any  par- 
ticular piece  of  work.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  tool  known  as 
the  "  Carpenter's.  Steel  Square "  which  is  without  doubt  the  most 
useful  of  all  the  tools  to  be  found  in  a  carpenter's  chest,  but  which  is 
not  always  thoroughly  understood  even  by  experienced  workmen. 
As  the  square  will  be  referred  to  frequently  in  these  pages  a  brief 
description  of  it  will  be  given. 


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Fig.  17. 


Fig.  16.     Carpenter's  Steel  Square. 

It  is  shown  in  Figs.  16  and  17,  each  view  showing  one  side  of 
the  square.  It  is  essentially  a  measuring  and  calculating  tool,  and 
all  of  the  various  markings  and  scales  found  on  either  side  have  their 
own  special  uses.  All  squares  are  not  alike,  there  being  several 
kinds  on  the  market  and  in  daily  use  among  mechanics,  but  the 


28 


CARPENTRY  2 I 


variations  in  the  markings  on  the  different  squares  are  so  slight  that 
if  one  is  explained  the  others  can  be  readily  understood. 

There  are  three  parts  to  the  tool  which  are  distinguished  by 
special  names,  the  tongue,  the  blade  and  the  heel.  The  longer, 
wider  arm  is  called  the  blade ;  the  shorter,  narrower  arm  is  called  the 
tongue ;  and  the  point  in  which  the  tongue  and  the  blade  meet,  on  the 
outside  edge  of  the  square,  is  called  the  heel.  In  the  figures,  A  is 
the  blade,  B  the  tongue,  and  C  the  heel.  In  carefully  made  tools, 
the  blade  is  two  feet  long  and  two  inches  wide,  while  the  tongue  is 
from  fourteen  to  eighteen  inches  long  and  one  and  one-half  inches 
wide. 

Starting  at  the  heel  and  reading  away  from  it,  the  outside  edges 
of  the  blade  and  the  tongue  on  both  sides  of  the  square,  are  divided 
into  inches  and  fractions  of  an  inch,  one  side  of  the  square  showincr 
sixteenths  and  the  other  side  showing  twelfths.  Starting  at  the 
interior  angle  opposite  the  heel,  the  inside  edges  are  divided  in  a 
similar  way  except  that  the  inches  on  both  sides  of  the  square  are 
divided  into  eighths  only.  In  some  squares  one  of  these  scales  is 
shown  divided  into  thirty-seconds  of  an  inch.  On  one  side  of  the 
blade  the  inch  marks  are  numbered  in  both  directions,  from  the  heel 
outward,  and  also  from  the  end  of  the  blade  inward,  toward  the  heel, 
so  that  each  inch  mark  has  two  numbers,  one  showing  its  distance 
m  mches,  from  the  heel,  and  the  other  showing  its  distance  from  the 
end  of  the  blade.  Tliese  extra  numbers  are  very  useful  in  measuring 
the  depth  of  mortises  and  in  all  similar  work.  The  arrangement  is 
shown  in  Fiw  16. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  blade,  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  17,  in 
addition  to  the  scales  on  the  two  edges,  we  find  a  column  of  figures 
directly  under  each  of  the  inch  marks  on  the  outer  edge.  The  fig- 
ures are  arranged  in  eight  rows,  parallel  to  the  edges  of  the  square. 
and  the  rows  are  marked  off  by  lines  running  the  full  length  of  the 
blade.  These  figures  enable  a  man  to  tell  at  a  glance  the  number  of 
board-feet  in  a  piece  of  timber  whose  dimensions  he  knows.  Under 
the  twelve-inch  mark  there  are  figures  showing  the  different  lengths 
which  can  ISe -measured  in  this  way,  so  that  each  row  of  figures  cor- 
responds to  a  certain  length,  found  under  the  twelve-inch  mark. 
Under  each  of  the  other  inch  marks  there  are  figures,  each  of  whirh 
gives  the  number  of  board-feet  in  a  plank  one  inch  thick,  whose 


29 


22  CAUPKNTIJY 


•width  in  inches  is  indicated  by  the  number  of  the  inch  marks  under 
which  the  figure  is  found,  and  whose  length,  in  feet,  is  indicated  by 
the  number  found  in  the  same  row  with  the  figure  itself  under  the 
twelve-inch  mark.  There  are  seven  or  eight  different  lengths  given, 
and  twenty-three  different  widths  for  each  length,  the  widths  varying 
from  two  inches  up  to  twenty-four  inches.  The  figures  expressing 
the  board  measure  are  given  as  feet  and  inches,  the  number  of  feet 
being  separated  from  the  number  of  inches  by  a  vertical  line,  with 
tlie  feet  on  the  left  and  the  inches  on  the  right.  Tor  instance,  118 
is  read  as  eleven  feet  and  eight  inches. 

On  the  same  side  of  the  square  which  shows  the  board  measure 
on  tlie  blade,  we  find  on  the  tongue  what  is  known  as  the  "  brace 
rule,"  placed  in  tlie  middle  of  the  tongue  between  the  two  scales 
which  are  marked  off  along  the  edges.  The  brace  rule  consists  of 
two  similar  numbers  representing  length  in  feet,  placed  one  above  the 
other,  with  a  third  number  placed  just  to  the  right  of  them, as  ||  33.94. 
The  two  similar  numbers  represent  the  length,  in  feet,  of  the  side  of 
a  perfect  square,  and  the  third  number  represents  the  length  of  the 
diagonal  of  this  square,  expressed  in  feet  and  decimals  of  a  foot.  In 
other  words  the  nundier  to  the  right  is  equal  to  the  square  root  of 
the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  other  two  numbers,  or  is  equal  to  one 
of  these  numbers  multiplied  by  tlie  square  root  of  2,  which  is 
1.414,  in  accordance  with  the  principle  that  tlie  lengtli  of  tlie  diag- 
onal of  a  square  is  equal  to  the  length  of  the  side  nnlltiplied  by  the 
square  root  of  two.  There  are  a  number  of  diil'erent  sets  of  figures 
like  this  on  the  tongue  of  the  square ;  they  are  very  useful  in  find- 
ing the  length  of  braces  which  make  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees 
with  the  post  into  which  they  frame,  or  which  have  a  total  rise  equal 
to  their  total  run. 

On  the  same  side  of  the  tongue  which  shows  the  brace  rule, 
placed  near  the  heel  of  the  square,  is  found  another  scale  which  may 
be  called  the  "  Scale  of  Hundredths."  It  consists  of  a  number  of  lines 
drawn  along  the  tongue  parallel  to  the  edges,  which  are  just  one- 
tenth  of  an  inch  apart. 

They  are  drawn  diagonally,  so  that  the  end  of  one  line  is  directly 
under  the  starting  point  of  the  next  line.  By  means  of  this  scale 
any  number  of  hundredths  of  an  inch  can  be  readily  measured  off. 
The  scale  mav  be  seen  in  Vv'  17. 


30 


CARPENTRY  23 


The  opposite  side  of  the  square  shows  two  lines,  drawn  near 
together  in  the  center  of  the  tongue.  Parallel  to  the  edges  and 
between  these  lines  a  single  line  of  dots  is  placed.  They  are  a  little 
more  than  one-fifth  of  an  inch  apart  and  numbered  by  tens.  The 
dots  constitute  what  is  called  the  "  octagon  scale,"  and  are  used  in 
the  process  of  cutting  a  stick  of  octagonal  section  out  of  a  stick  of 
square  section.  Suppose  for  example  we  take  a  stick  ten  inches 
square  and  wish  to  cut  from  it  a  stick  of  octagonal  section.  We  will 
first  draw  a  line  lengthwise  in  the  center  of  each  of  the  four  faces  of 
the  square  stick.  Then  applying  the  square,  we  measure  off  on  both 
sides  of  this  center  line,  in  each  face,  perpendicular  to  the  edges  of 
the  piece,  as  many  of  the  spaces  shown  by  the  line  of  dots  as  there 
are  inches  in  the  side  of  the  square  stick.  Thus  in  this  case,  we 
measure  off  ten.  spaces  on  each  side  of  each  center  line,  and  then 
draw  through  the  points  thus  located  two  lines  in  each  face,  parallel 
to  the  center  line  and  equidistant  from  it.  These  eight  lines 
represent  the  eight  edges  of  the  octagonal  stick,  and  by  cutting  away 
the  four  corners,  the  desired  shape  is  obtained. 

This  completes  the  description  of  the  markings  upon  the  square, 
and  although  there  are  undoubtedly  some  squares  in  use  which  may 
not  be  exactly  like  the  model  described,  they  all  have  nearly  the 
same  markings,  arranged  in  the  same  way  or  with  but  slight  variations. 

Some  of  the  numerous  applications  of  the  square  in  the  solution 
of  practical  problems  in  Carpentry  are  explained  in  connection  with 
the  work  on  "  framing,"  and  others  will  suggest  themselves  to  the 
thoughtful  student.  The  uses  to  which  the  instrument  may  be 
put  are  so  many  and  so  various  that  it  would  require  a  large  book  to 
explain  them  all,  but  those  who  use  the  tool  constantly  will  readily 
discover  them  and  perhaps  many  new  ones  besides. 

LAYING  OUT. 

Having  now  considered  the  material  and  the  most  important  of 
the  tools  with  which  the  carpenter  performs  his  work,  we  shall  pass 
to  a  consideration  of  the  work  itself,  and  see  how  a  building  of  wooden 
construction  is  put  together. 

In  undertaking  the  construction  of  any  building,  the  first  thing 
to  do  is  to  make  a  very  thoughtful  examination  of  the  piece  of  ground 
upon  which  the  structure  is  to  be  placed     This  is  very  important, 


31 


21  CARPENTRY 


since  tlie  character  of  the  soil  up(ja  which  a  dwelling  is  located  will 
very  largely  determine  its  sanitary  condition,  and  will  inlluence  to  a 
great  extent  the  health  of  the  occupants.  Very  often  a  difference  of 
a  few  yards  in  the  position  of  a  building  will  be  enough  to  cause  the 
difference  between  a  perfectly  dry  cellar  and  one  which  is  constantly 
flooded  with  water.  Water  is,  indeed,  the  one  thing  above  all  others 
which  must  be  guarded  against,  since  it  is  almost  impossible  to  keep 
it  out  of  a  cellar  which  is  sunk  in  damp  ground. 

At  a  certain  distance  below  the  surface  of  the  earth  there  is 
always  to  be  found  what  is  known  as  "  ground  water."  This  stands 
always  nearly  at  a  level,  so  that  it  is  not  met  with  so  near  the  surface 
of  a  slight  knoll  or  other  elevation  as  in  the  case  of  a  depression.  If 
possible,  the  house  should  be  so  located  that  the  bottom  of  the  cellar 
need  not  come  below  the  ground-water  level,  and  consequently  it 
should  be  placed  on  comparatively  high  land.  Below  the  surface  of 
a  hill,  however,  there  may  be  a  stratum  of  rock  which  will  hold  the 
rain  water  and  prevent  it  from  sinking  at  once  to  the  ground-water 
level.  Such  a  ledge  of  rock  causes  the  water  to  collect,  and  then 
flow  off  in  small  subterranean  streams,  which  will  almost  surely 
penetrate  the  walls  of  a  cellar  if  it  happens  to  be  in  their  path. 

A  good  way  to  discover  the  depth  of  the  ground-water  level,  or 
the  existence  of  rock  ledges  beneath  the  surface  of  tlie  ground,  is  to 
dig  a  number  of  small,  deep  holes  at  various  points  of  the  site.  These 
should  be  carried  below  the  projwsed  level  of  the  cellar  bottom.  A 
suitable  location  for  the  building  may  thus  be  chosen. 

When  the  approximate  position  of  the  structure  has  been  decided 
upon,  the  next  step  is  to  "  stake  it  out."  That  is,  the  position  of  the 
corners  of  the  building  must  be  located  and  marked  in  some  way  on 
the  ground,  so  that  when  the  excavation  is  begun  the  workmen  may 
know  what  are  the  exact  boundaries  of  the  cellar.  This  "  stakinsr 
out"  should  always  be  carefully  attended  to,  no  matter  how  small  the 
building  may  be.  In  works  of  importance  it  is  always  best  to  have 
the  work  done  by  an  engineer,  but  on  small  work  it  is  customary  for 
the  contractor  or  the  architect  to  attend  to  it.  It  is  well  to  have  at 
hand  some  instrument  with  which  angles  can  be  accurately  measured, 
such  as  a  transit ;  but  the  work  can  be  done  v6ry  satisfactorily  with  a 
tape  measure  and  a  "  mason's  square."  This  simple  instrument  is 
composed  of  three  sticks  of  timber  nailed  together  as  shown  in  Fig. 


32 


CARPENTRY 


'>5 


18,  to  form  a  right-angled  triangle.  It  is  important  that  the  tape  used 
should  be  accurate,  a  steel  tape  being  always  preferable,  and  that  the 
square  should  give  an  exact  right  angle.  A  mistake  in  the  staking 
out  may  cause  endless  trouble  when  the  erection  of  the  building 
itself  is  begun,  and  it  is  then  too  late  to  remedy  it. 

There  are  several  different  lines  which  must  be  located  at  some 
time  during  the  construction,  and  they  may  as  well  be  settled  at 
the  start.  These  are :  the  line  of  excavation,  which  is  outside  of  all ;  the 
face  of  the  basement  wall,  inside  cf  the  excavation  line ;  and,  in  the 
case  of  a  masonry  building,  the  ashlar  line,  which  indicates  the  out- 
side of  the  brick,  or  stone  walls.  In  the  case  of  a  wooden  structure 
only  the  two  outside  lines  need  be  located,  and  often  only  the  line  of 
the  excavation  is  determined  at  the  outset. 

The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  lay  out  upon 
the  ground  the  main  rectangle  of  the  build- 
ing, after  which  the  secondary  rectangles 
which  indicate  the  position  of  ells,  bay 
windows,  etc.,  may  be  located.  Starting  at 
any  point  on  the  lot  where  it  is  desired  to 
place  one  corner  of  the  building,  a  stake 
should  be  driven  into  the  ground  and  a  li.  - 
laid  out  either  parallel  or  perpendiculai  .o 
the  street  upon  which  the  structure   is  to 

face.  At  the  end  of  this  line,  which  forms  one  side  of  our  rectangle, 
and  the  length  of  which  is  determmed  by  the  dimensions  of  the 
buildincT,  another  stake  should  be  driven,  and  these  two  stakes  will 
determine  the  direction  and  the  length  of  the  line.  The  exact 
location  of  the  ends  of  the  line  may  be  indicated  by  a  nail  driven 
into  the  top  of  each  stake. 

After  one  line  has  been  thus  laid  out,  others  may  be  laid  out 
perpendicular  to  it  at  its  ends,  with  the  aid  of  the  mason's  square 
and  the  tape  measure.  The  accuracy  of  the  right  angle  may  be 
checked  by  the  use  of  the  "  three-four-five  "  rule.  This  rule  is  based 
upon  the  fact  that  a  triangle,  whose  three  sides  are  respectively 
three,  four,  and  five  feet  long,  is  an  exact  right-angled  triangle,  the 
right  angle  being  always  the  angle  between  the  three-foot  and  th« 
four-foot  sides.  This  fact  may  be  proven  by  applying  the  well- 
known  theorem  which  states  that  the  length  of  the  hypothenuse  of 


Mason's  Square. 


33 


26 


CAIIPENTKY 


a  right-angled  triangle  is  equal  to  the  square  root  of  the  sum  of  the 
squares  of  the  other  two  sides.     The  rule  may  he  used  as  follows  : 
Lay  off  on  one  of  the  side  lines  already  laid  out  on  the  ground, 

^. any  multi])le  of   three    feet,  as    nine 

feet,  or  twelve  feet.  On  the  other  line, 
presumably  at  right  angles  to  the  first 
one,  lay  off  the  same  multiple  of  four 
feet,  as  twelve  feet,  or  sixteen  feet. 
Now  a  straight  line,  measured  between 
the  points  so  obtained,  should  have  a 
length  equal  to  the  same  multiple  of 
five  feet,  as  fifteen  feet  or  twenty  feet. 
If  this  is  not  found  to  be  the  case,  the  angle  laid  out  is  not  an 
exact  right  angle,  and  instead  of  a  rectangle  we  have  a  parallel- 
ogram as  ^hown  in  Pig.  19.  This  will  not  do  at  all,  and  the 
inaccuracy  must  be  cor- 
rected. It  is  possible  to 
lay  out  the  right  angle 
in  the  first  place  by  this 
same  method,  using  two 
flexible  cords,  respect- 
ively four  feet  and  five 
feet  long.  The  end  of 
the  four-foot  cord  should 
be  fastened  at  the  end  of 
the  side  line  of  the  build- 
ing, and  the  end  of  the 
five-foot  cord  should  be 
fastened  on  this  same 
side  line,  three  feet  away 
from  the  corner.  When 
the  loose  ends  of  both 
cords  are  held  together, 
and   the  cords  are  both 


Fig.  20.     Position  of  Corner. 


drawn  taut,  the  point  where  the  ends  meet  will  be  a  point  on  the 
side  line  of  the  building  perpendicular  to  tlie  first  side  line.  It  is 
evident  that  tliis  point  must  be  just  four  feet  from  the  corner,  and 
that  the  distance  between  it  and  the  point  on  the  other  side  line 
three  feet  from  the  corner,  must  be  five  feet. 


34 


CARPENTRY  27 


After  all  the  corners  of  the  building  have  been  located,  their 
position  should  be  indicated  by  the  use  of  "  batter  boards."  One  of 
these  is  shown  in  Fig.  20.     It  will  be  seen  that  it  consists  of  a  post 

A,  which  is  set  up  at  the  corner,  together  with  two  horizontal  pieces 

B,  B,  which  extend  outward  for  a  short  distance  along  the  sides  of 
the  rectangle  that  has  been  laid  out.  The  horizontal  pieces  may 
be  braced  securely  as  shown,  and,  the  whole  will  be  a  permanent 
indication  of  the  position  of  the  corner.  Notches  may  be  cut  in  the 
top  of  the  horizontal  pieces  to  indicate 
the  position  of  the  various  lines,  and 
cords  may  then  be  stretched  between  the 
notches  from  batter  board  to  batter  board. 
These  cords  will  give  the  exact  location 
of  the  lines. 

Another  way  to  indicate  the  position 
of  the  lines  is  by  driving  small  nails  into 

the  tops  of  the, batter  boards  instead  of 

,   ,       '.      .1  1     ,         -1  Fig.  21.     Batter  Boards, 

cutting  notches  in  them ;  but  nails  may  * 

be  withdrawn,  while  the  notches,  when  they  are  once  cut,  cannot 

easily  be  obliterated. 

-Batter  boards  should  always  be  set  up  very  securely,  so  that 

they  will  not  be  displaced  during  the  building  operations.     If  there 

is  danger  that  the  form  of  batter  board  shown  in  Fig.  20   may  be 

displaced,  because  of  the  large  size  of  the  structure  and  the  length 

of  time  during  which  they  must  be  used,  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  21 

may  be  substituted.     Two  of  these,  at  right  angles  to  each  other, 

must  be  placed  at  each  corner. 

LIGHT   FRAHINQ. 

After  the  building  has  been  laid  out,  and  the  batter  boards  are 
in  place,  the  next  work  which  a  carpenter  is  -called  upon  to  do  is  the 
framing.  This  consists  in  preparing  a  skeleton,  as  we  may  say,  upon 
which  a  more  or  less  ornamental  covering  is  to  be  placed.  Just  as 
the  skeleton  is  the  most  essential  part  of  the  human  body,  so  is  the 
frame  the  most  essential  part  of  a  wooden  building;  and  upon  the 
strength  of  this  frame  depends  the  .strength  and  durability  of 
the  structure.  When  the  carpenter  comes  to  the  work,  lie  finds 
everything    prepared    for    him;    the    cellar   has   been   dug  and  the 


35 


28 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  22.     Splice. 


foundation  walls  and  the  underpinning  have  been  built.     It  is  his 
business  to  raise  the  framework  on  top  of  them.     First  is  the  wall, 

then  the  floors  and  the  roof. 
Tiierefore  the  subject  may  be 
subdivided,  and  considered  un- 
der these  three  main  headings. 
In  connection  with  the  walls 
we  may  consider  the  partitions 
as  well  as  the  outside  walls, 
and  in  connection  with  the 
floors  we  may  consider  the 
stairs,  while  the  roof  may  be 
taken  as  comprising  the  main 
roof  and  also  subordinate  roofs  over  piazzas,  balconies  and  ells.  This 
covers  all  the  framing  that  will  be  found  in  a  wooden  building, 
except  special  framing,  which  will  be  treated  later.  Whatever  fram- 
ing there  is  in  a  brick  or  stone  building  is  similar  to  that  in  a 
wooden  building,  with  the  slight  differences  which  may  be  noted  as 
we  come  to  them. 

JOINTS  AND  SPLICES. 
Joints.     Before   beginning   a    description    of   the    framing    of 
the  wall,  it  will  be  well  to  consider  the  methods  employed  in  joining 
pieces  of  timber  together.     Tlie  number  of  different  kinds  of  con- 
nections is  really  very  small,  and 
the  principles  upon  which  they 
are  based  may  be  mastered  very 
quickly. 

All  connections  between 
pieces  of  timber  may  be  classified 
as  joints  or  as  splices.  By  a 
"  splice  "  we  mean  a  connection 
between  two  pieces  which  extend 
in  the  same  direction,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  22,  and  each  one  of  which  is  merely  a  continuation  of  the  other. 
The  only  reason  for  the  existence  of  such  a  connection  is  the  fact  that 
sticks  of  timber  can  be  obtained  only  in  limited  lengths,  and  must 
therefore  very  often  ba  pieced  out.  By  a  "  joint"  we  mean  any  con- 
nection between  two  pieces  which    come  together  at  an  angle,  as 


Fig.  23.    Joint. 


36 


CARPENTRY 


29 


shown  in  Fig.  23,  and  which  are  therefore  not  continuous.  Sucli  a 
connection  may  be  required  in  a  great  many  places,  and  especially  at 
the  corners  of  a  building. 

Joints.  The  principal  kinds  of  joints  to  be  met  with  in  car- 
pentry are  the  "bi  tt  joint,"  the  "mortise-and-tenon  joint,"  the  "gained 
joint,"  the  "  halve  I  joint,"  the  "tenon-and-tusk  joint,"  and  the  "double 
tenon  joint." 

The  Butt  Joint.  This  is  the  most  simple  of  all  the  joints,  and 
is  made  by  merely  placing  the  two  pieces  together  and  nailing  them 
firmly  to  each  other,  after  both  have  been  trimmed  square  and  true. 
Such  a  joint  is  shown  in  Fig.  24.  The  two  pieces  are  perpendicular 
to  each  other  and  neither  piece  is  cut.  The  nails  are  driven  diag- 
onally through  both  pieces,  an  operation  which  is  known  as  "  toe- 
nailing," and  are  driven  home,  if 
necessary,  with  a  nail  set.  This  is 
called  a  "  square  "  butt  joint.     Fig. 


Fig.  24.     Butt  Joint. 


Fig.  25.     Oblique  Butt  Joint. 


25  shows  two  pieces  which  are  not  perpendicular  to  each  other. 
They  are  trimmed  to  fit  closely  together,  and  are  then  nailed  in 
place.  Such  a  joint  is  called  an  "oblique"  butt  joint.  The  butt 
joint  does  not  make  a  strong  connection  between"  the  pieces,  and 
should  not  be  used  if  much  strength  is  required.  It  depends  entirely 
upon  the  nails  for  its  strength,  and  these  are  very  likely  to  pull  out. 
This  form  of  joint  is  sometimes  modified  by  cutting  away  a  part 
of  one  of  the  pieces,  so  that  the  other  may  set  down  into  it  as  shown 
in  Fig.  26,  the  square  joint  at  A,  and  the  oblique  joint  at  B.  This 
gives  much  additional  strength  to  the  joint,  especially  in  the  case 
shown  at  B,  where  there  may  be  a  tendency  for  one  piece  to  slide 
along  the  other. 


37 


30 


CARPEXTIil 


The  nortise=and-Tenon  Joint.  From  the  modified  butt  joint 
it  is  only  a  step  to  the  "  mortise-and-tenoii  "  joint,  which  is  formed 
by  cutting  a  liole  called  a  "  mortise  "  in  one  of  the  pieces  of  timber, 
to  receive  a  projection  called  a  "  tenon  "  which  is  cut  on  the  end 
of  the  other  piece.  This  is  shown  in  Fig.  27.  Tlie  mortise  is  at  <( 
and  the  tenon  at  /'.     It  will  be  noticed  that  there  is  a  hole  bored 


Ficr.  26  A. 


Modified  Butt  Joints. 


Fig.  26  B. 


through  the  tenon  at  c,  and  another  hole  in  the  mortised  piece  at 
d.  These  holes  are  so  placed  that  when  the  pieces  are  joined 
together,  a  wooden  pin  may  be  driven  through  both  holes,  thus 
preventing  the  tenon  from  being  withdrawn  from  the  mortise. 
This  pin  should  always  be  inserted  in  a  mortise-and-tenon  joint. 
Ordinarily  it  is  of  hard  wood  even  when  the  pieces  to  be  joined 
are  themselves  of  soft  wood,  and  it  may  be  of  any  desired  size. 
Hound  pins  from  three-quarters  to  seven-eigiiths  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  are  ordinarily  employed,  although  it  may  sometimes  be 
found  better  to  use  a  square  pin. 

The  Bridge  Joint.  Tlie  form  of  mortise-and-tenon  joint 
described  above  may  be  used  wherever  the  pieces  are  perpendicu- 
lar to  each  other.  When,  however,  the  pieces  are  inclined  to  each 
other,  a  modification  of  the  above  joint  known  iis  the  "  bridge  "  or 
"straddle"  joint  is  employed.  This  joint  is  shown  in  Figs.  28 
and  29.  It  is  similar  to  tlie  square  mortise-and-tenon  joint,  hav- 
ing a  similar  mortise  and  tenon,  but  these  are  cut  in  a  slightly 
different  way.  In  Fig.  28  the  tenon  a  is  cut  in  the  end  of  the 
inclined  uiece  and  fits  into  the  mortise  h  cut  in  the  other  piece. 


38 


CARPENTRY 


31 


In  Fig.  29  the  mortise  a  is  cut  in  the  end  of  the  inclined  piece 
and  the  tenon  h  is  cut  in  the  other  piece. 

The  Gained   Joint.       The   joints    whicli    have   so   far   been 
described  are  applicable  only  where  the  members  are  subjected  to 


Fig.  27.  Mortise-aud-Tenon  Joint. 


Fig.  28.     Bridge  Joiut. 


direct  compression,  as  in  the  case  of  posts  or  braces,  or  in  certain 
cases  where  direct  tension  is  the  only  force  acting  on  the  x^ieces. 
When  bending  and  shearing  are  to  be  expected,  as  in  the  case  of 


Fig.  29.     Bridge  Joint. 


Fig.  oO.     Gained  Joiut. 


floor  beams  connecting  to  sills  or  girders,  a.  slightly  different  sort 
of  joint  must  be  employed.  . 

One  of  the  most  common  joints  for  such  places  is  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  mortise-and-tenon  joint  which  is  known  as  the  "  gained 
joint."  An  example  of  this  form  of  connection  is  shown  in  Fig. 
30,  and  it  may  be  seen  that  the  end  of  one  piece  is  tenoned  in  a 
peculiar  way.     The  tenon  proper  is  the  part  a-h-c  and  this  tenon 


39 


32 


CARPENTIIY 


sets  into  a  corresponding  mortise  cut  in  the  other  piece  as  shown. 
It  is  evident  that  the  tenon  cannot  be  held  in  place  by  a  pin,  hut 
it  may  be  secured  by  nailing. 

The  reason  for  this  peculiar  form  of  tenon  may  be  explained 
as  follows:  A  floor  beam,  or  any  other  timber  which  is  loaded 
transversely,  has  a  tendency  to  fall  to  the  ground,  and  must  be 
supported  at  its  ends  either  by  resting  directly  on  a  wall  or  sill,  or 
by  being  mortised  into  the  latter  member.  Moreover,  in  order 
that  the  end  of  the  piece  resting  on  the  support  may  not  be 
crushed  or  broken,  a  certain  amount  of  bearing  surface  must  be 


Fig.  31.    Tenon-and-Tusk  Joints.     Fig.  32. 

available.  This  same  bearing  surface  must  be  provided  in  every 
case  no  matter  whether  the  timber  rests  directly  on  the  top  of  the 
sill  or  is  mortised  into  it.  Of  course  the  simplest  connection  is 
obtained  by  resting  the  transverse  piece  directly  on  top  of  the  sill 
without  cutting  either  piece ;  but  such  a  joint  is  not  stiff  and 
strong,  and  it  is  often  necessary  to  bring  the  timbers  flush  with 
each  other  at  the  top  or  at  the  bottom.  For  this  reason  a  mortised 
joint  is  used;  and  in  order  to  obtain  the  required  amount  of  bear- 
ing surface  without  cutting  the  pieces  too  much,  the  form  of  tenon 
shown  is  employed.  The  available  bearing  area  here  is  furnished 
by  the  surfaces  d-n  and  h-c  and  it  may  easily  be  seen  that  this  area 
is  the  same  as  would  be  available  if  the  piece  rested  directly  on 
top  of  the  sill. 

The  operation  of  cutting  such  a  tenon  and  mortise  is  known 
a«  "gaining,"  and  one  piece  is  said  to  be  "gained"  into  the  other. 

The  Tenon-and-Tusk  Joint.     A  joint  in  very  common  use 


40 


CARPENTRY 


83 


in  such  situations  as  have  just  been  mentioned  is  a  development  of 
the  gained  joint  which  is  called  the  "  tenon-and-tusk "  oi-  tiie 
"tusk-tcnon"  joint.  This  joint  is  shown  in  Fig.  31.  The  charac- 
teristic feature  is  to  be  found  in  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  tenon 
which  is  cut  in  the  end  of  one  of  the  pieces  to  be  joined,  as  shown 
in  the  lio-ure.  It  may  be  seen  that  there  is  a  small  square  tenon  b 
cut  in  the  extreme  end  of  the  piece,  and  that  in  addition  to  this 
there  are  other  cuts  c  which  constitute  the  "  tusk."  The  bearing 
area  is  furnished  partly  by  the  under  side  of  the  tenon  and  partly 
by  the  under  side  of  the  tusk. 


Fig.  33.     Methods  of  Securing  Tenons.     Fig.  34. 

This  joint  makes  a  very  good  connection,  and  the  cutting  of 
the  mortise  does,  not  weaken  the  piece  of  timber  so  much  as  does 
the  mortise  for  a  gained  joint.  It  is  especially  applicable  when  it 
is  desired  to  have  the  pieces  flash  on  top,  though  it  may  also  be 
used  in  other  positions.  '  When  the  top  of  the  tenoned  piece  must 
project  above  the  top  of  the  mortised  piece,  the  tenon  may  be  cut 
as  shown  in  Fig.  32. 

There  are  several  ways  of  securing  the  tenon  in  place.  The 
simplest  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  o3,  where  the  pin  h  is  passed 
through  the  tenon  and  the  mortised 
piece  80  as  to  hold  the  tenon  securely 
in  place.  Another  scheme  is  to  cut 
the  square  tenon  a  little  longer,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  34,  so  as  to  pass  clear 
through  the  mortised   piece,  and   to 

fasten  it  with  a  peg  b  on  the  other  side.  The  peg  may  be  cut 
slightly  tapering,  as  shewn,  so  that  when  it  is  driven  in  place  it 
will  draw  the  pieces  together.  Still  another  plan  is  shown  m 
Fig.  35.     Here  a  small  square  hole  a  is  cut  in  the  header  seme 


Fig.  3:. 

Method  of  Securing  Tenon. 


41 


84 


CARPENTRY 


distance  back  from  tlie  tenon  unci  a  nut  c  is  placed  in  it,  while  a 
bolt  l  is  passed  through  a  hole  bored  lengthwise  in  tlie  header  to 
receive  it.  The  bolt  passes  through  the  nut,  which  may  be  screwed 
up  tight,  thus  drawing  the  pieces  closely  together  and  making  the 
joint  tiglit.  In  screwing  this  uji,  it  is  the  bolt  which  must  be 
turned,  while  the  nut  is  held  stationary  by  the  side  of  the  square 
hole  in  which  it  is  inserted  and  which  is  iust  larsre  enoucrh  to 
receive  it. 


Fig.  36.     Double  Teuuu  Joint. 


Fig.  37.     Halved  Joint. 


The  Double  Tenon  Joint.  Fig.  36  shows  a  form  of  tenon  joint 
called  the  "  double  tenon  "  joint,  which  is  not  very  extensively  used 
at  the  present  time  but  which  has  some  advantages.  As  may  be 
readily  seen,  there  are  two  small  tenons  a  and  h  through  which  a 
pin  may  be  passed  if  desired. 

The  Halved  Joint,  A  form  of  joint  which  may  be  used  to 
connect  two  pieces  that  meet  at  a  corner  of  a  building,  is  shown 
in  Fig.  37. 

This  is  known  as  the  "  halved"  joint  from  the  fact  that  both 
pieces  are  ciit  half  way  through  and  then  placed  together.  The 
pieces  are  held  in  place  by  nails  or  spikes. 

If  one  piece  meets  the  other  near  the  center  instead  of  at  the 
end  of  the  piece,  and  if  there  is  danger  that  the  two  pieces  may 
pull  away  from  each  other,  a  form  of  joint  called  the  "dovetail" 
halved  joint  is  used.  This  is  shown  in  Fig.  38.  Both  the  tenon 
and  the  mortise  are  cut  in  the  shape  of  a  fan,  or  dovetail,  which 
prevents  them  from  being  pulled  apart.      This  joint  may  also  be 


42 


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35 


cut  as  shown  in  Fig.  39,  with  the  flare  on  only  om-)  side  of  the 
tenon,  the  other  side  being  straight. 

Splices.  As  ah-eady  exphiined,  a  splice  is  merely  a  joint 
between  two  pieces  of  timber  which  extend  in  the  same  direction, 
and  is  sometimes  necessary  because  one  long  piece  cannot  be  con- 
veniently or  cheaply  obtained.     The  only  object  in  view,  then,  is 


Fig.  38.     Dovetail  Halved  Joint. 


Fig.  39.     Dovetail  Joint. 


to  fasten  the 
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two  timbers  together,  in  such  a  way  that  the  finished 
in  all  respects  equivalent  to  a  single  unbroken  piece, 
and  will   satisfy  all  the  requirements  of  the  un- 
broken piece.     This  is  really  the  only  measure  of 
the  efficiency  of  a  splice. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  forces  to  which  a 
piece  may  be  subjected,  namely  :  compression,  ten- 
sion, and  bending.  A  splice  which  would  be  very 
effective  in  a  timber  acted  upon  by  one  of  these 
forces  might  be  absolutely  worthless  in  a  piece 
"which  must  resist  one  of  the  other  forces.  We 
have,  therefore,  three  classes  of  splices,  each 
designed  to  resist  one  of  these  three  forces. 

Splices  for  Compression.  The  simplest  splices 
are  those  to  resist  compression  alone,  and  of  these 
the  most  simple  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  40.  This 
piece  is  said  to  be  "  fished ; "  the  two  parts  are 
merely  sawed  off  square  and  the  ends  placed 
together.     A  couple  of  short  pieces  A  A,  called  "  fish  plates  "  are 


H»v^ 


Fig.  40. 
Fished  Splice. 


43 


36 


CARPENTRY 


nailed  on  opposite  sides  to  keep  the  parts  in  line.  In  the  splice 
shown  in  Fig.  40,  these  are  of  wood,  and  ordinary  nails  are  used 
to  fasten  them  in  place,  but  in  more  important  work  thin  iron 
plates  are  used,  the  thickness  being  varied  to  suit  the  conditions. 
They  are  held  in  place  by  means  of  bolts  with  washers  and  nuts. 

If  for  any  reason,  it  is 
desired  not  to  use  plates  of 
this  kind,  four  small  pieces 
called  dowels  may  be  used, 
as  indicated  in  Fig.  41. 
These  dowels  may  be  set 
into  the  sides  of  the  tim- 
bers to  be  spliced,  so  that 
they  do  not  project  at  all 
beyond  the  faces  of  these 
pieces  and  a  very  neat  job 
may  thus  be  obtained. 

It  is  but  a  step  to  pass  from  this  simple  splice  to  the  "  halved  " 
splice  shown  in  Fig.  42.  It  will  be  noticed  that  it  is  much  like 
the  halved  joint  described  above,  the  only  difference  being  that  the 
pieces  are  continuous,  instead  of  perpendicular  to  each  other. 
The  nature  of  the  splice  will  be  easily  understood  from  the  figure 


Fig.  41.    Splice  Using  Dowels. 


Fig.  42.     Halved  Splice. 


Fig.  43.    Beveled  Splice. 


without  further  explanation.  A  modification  of  this  which  is 
somewhat  more  effective,  is  shown  in  Fig.  43.  The  cuts  are  here 
made  on  a  bevel  in  such  a  way  that  the  parts  fit  accurately  when 
placed  together,  and  the  splice  is  called  a  "beveled"  splice. 

The  halved  splice  is  perhaps  the  best  that  can  be  used  to 


44 


CARPENTRY  37 


resist  direct  compression,  and  when  it  is  combined  with  fish  pLates 
and  bolts  as  s^iown  in  Fig.  44  it  may  be  used  in  cases  wliere  some 
tension  is  to  be  expected.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  Fig.  44  the 
ends  of  the  timbers  are  cut  witli  a  small  additional  tongue  a  but 
this  does  not  materially  strengthen  the  splice  and  it  adds  consider- 
ably to  the  labor  of  forming  it.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the 
simplest  splice  is  the  most  effective. 

Whenever  the  pieces  are  cut  to  fit  into  one  another,  as  they 
do  in  the  halved  and  beveled  splices,  the  splice  is  known  as  a 
"  scarf "  splice,  and  the  operation  of  cutting  and  joining  the  parts 
is  called  "scarfing."  Scarf  splices  are  used,  as  we. have  already 
seen,  both  alone  and  in  combination  with  fish  plates.  The  fished 
splice  is  always  the  stronger,  but  the  splice  where  scarfing  alone  is 
resorted  to  has  the  neatest  appearance. 


Fig.  44.     Halved  Splice  with  Fish  Plates.         Fig.  45.     Splice  for  Tension. 

Splices  for  Tension.  There  are  several  common  forms  of 
splices  for  resisting  direct  tension.  These  differ  from  each  other 
mainly  in  the  amount  of  labor  mvolved  in  making  them.  The 
simplest  of  them  is  shown  in  Fig.  45,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is 
only  a  slight  modification  of  the  halved  splice  used  for  resisting 
compression.  It  is  evident  that  the  pieces  cannot  pull  apart  in  the 
direction  of  their  length  until  the  timber  crushes  along  the  face 
marked  a-h,  or  shears  along  the  dotted  line  a-c.  By  varying  the 
dimensions  of  the  splice  it  may  be  made  suitable  for  any  situation. 
The  parts  are  held  closely  together  by  the  light  fishplates  shown 
in  the  figure,  which  also  incidentally  add  something  to  the  strength 
of  the  splice. 

Instead  of  cutting  the  ends  of  the  beams  square,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  45,  they  frequently  are  cut  on  a  bevel  as  shown  in  Fig.  46, 


45 


38 


CARPENTRY 


and  a  further  modification  may  be  introducetl  by  inserting  a  small 
"key"  of  hard  wood  between  the  pieces  for  them  to  pull  against. 
This  key  is  usually  made  of  oak  and  may  be  in  two  parts,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  47,  each  part  in  the  shape  of  a  wedge,  so  that  when  they 
are  driven  into  place  a  tight  joint  may  be  obtained.  The  two 
wedge-shaped  pieces  may  be  driven  in  from  opposite  sides,  the  hole 
being  made  a  little  smaller  than  the  key.     If  the  key  is  made 


Fig.  46.     Splice  for  Tension. 


Fig.  47.     Splice  with  Two  Keys. 


much  too  large  for  the  hole,  however,  a  so-called  "  initial ''  stress 
is  brought  into  the  timbers,  which  uses  up  some  of  their  strength 
even  l)efore  any  load  is  applied.     This  should  be  avoided. 

If  it  is  desired,  two  or  more  keys  may  be  employed  in  a  splice, 
the  only  limiting  condition  being  that  they  must  be  placed  far 
enough  apart  so  that  the  wood  will  not  shear  out  along  the  dotted 
line  shown  in  Fig.  47.     Another  feature  of  the  splice  here  shown 


Fig.  48.     Keys. 


Fig.  49.  Tension  Splice  with  Fish  Plates. 


is  the  way  in  which  the  pieces  are  cu.t  with  two  bevels  on  the  end 
instead  of  one.  One  bevel  starts  at  the  edge  oi  the  key  and  is 
very  gradual,  the  other  starts  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  piece  and 


46 


CARPENTRY 


39 


IS  rather  steep  and  sharp.  .  Tliese  bevels  can  be  used  only  in  joints 
which  resist  tension  alone.  If  such  a  splice  were  subjected  to 
compression,  the  beveled  ends  would  slide  on  each  other  and  push 
by  eacli  other  very  easily,  except  as  they  are  prevented  from  so 
doing  by  the  fish  plates,  if  these  are  used. 

Tension  Splice  with  Fish  Plates.  The  splices  for  tension 
which  have  so  far  been  described  have  all  been  scarf  joints,  but 
there  is  a  fished  splice  which  is  very  commonly  used  for  tension. 
This  splice  is  shown  in  Fig.  49.  The  fish  plates,  in  this  case  of 
wood,  are  cut  into  the  two  pieces  to  be  spliced,  so  as  to  hold  them 
firmly  together.  The  pieces  cannot  be  pulled  apart  until  one  of 
the  plates  shears  off  along  the  dotted  line  a-h.  The  distance  c-d 
must  also  be  made  large  enough  so  that  the  piece  will  not  shear. 
This  splice  is  very  often  used  for  the  lower  chords  of  wooden 
trusses,  and  it  is  really  one  of  the  best  that  can  be  used  for 
resisting  direct  tension. 

Splices  for  Bending.  It 
sometimes  happens  that  a 
piece  which  is  subjected  to 
a  bending  stress  must  be 
spliced,  and  in  this  case  the 
splice  must  be  formed  to  suit 
the  existing  conditions.  It 
is  well  known  that  in  a  tim- 
ber which  is  resisting  a  bend- 
ing stress  the  upper  part  of 

the  piece  is  in  compression,  and  the  tendency  is  for  the  fibers  to 
crush,  while  the  lower  part  of  the  piece  is  in  tension,  and  the  ten- 
dency is  for  the  fibers  •  to  pull  apart.  To  provide  for  this,  a 
form  of  splice  must  be  selected  which  combines  the  features  of 
the  tension  and  compression  splices.  Fig.  50  shows  such  a 
splice.  The  parts  are  scarfed  together  as  in  the  case  of  the 
other  splices  described,  but  in  this  case  the  end  of  the  top  piece 
is  cut  off.  square  to  offer  the  greatest  possible  resistance  to  crush- 
ing, while  the  underneath  piece  is  beveled  on  the  end,  as  there 
is  no  tendency  for  the  timbers  to  crush.  These  cuts  are  shown 
in  the  figure. 

We  have  already  seen  that  in  the  lower  part  of  the  splice 


Fig.  50. 


Splice  for  Beuding. 


47 


40 


CARPENTRY 


there  is  a  tendency  for  the  parts  to  be  pulled  away  from  each 
other.  In  order  to  prevent  this,  a  fish  plate  a  is  used,  which  must 
be  heavy  enough  to  take  care  of  .all  the  tension,  since  it  is  evident 
tha't  tlic  wood  cannot  take  -any  of  this.  The  plate  must  be 
securely  bolted  to  both  parts  of  the  splice.  Tliere  is  no  need  of  a 
fish  plate  on  the  top  of  the  pieces  because  there  is  no  tendency  for 
tlie  pieces  to  pull  apart  on  top,  and  the  bolts  shown  in  the  figure 
are  sufficient  to  prevent  them  from  being  displaced. 

In  any  case  where  it  is  not  desirable  to  scarf  the  pieces  in  a 

splice  subjected  to  bending, 
the  form  of  butt  joint  shown 
in  Fig.  51  may  be  used.  The 
phites  (either  of  wood  or  iron) 
are  m  this  case  bolted  to  the 
sides  of  the  pieces.  If  wood 
is  used,  of  course  the  plates 
must  be  made  very  much 
heavier  than  if  iron  is  used. 


Fig.  51.    Butt  Joint. 


In  either  case  they  must  be  large  enough  to  take  care  of  all  the 
bending  stress,  and  a  sufficient  number  of  bolts  must  be  used  to 
fasten  them  securely  to  both  parts  of  the  splice. 

THE   WALL. 

Let  us  next  consider  the  framing  of  the  walls  of  the  build- 
ing. In  this  work  there  are  two  distinct  methods  known  respect- 
ively as  "  braced  framing "  and  "  balloon  framing,"  of  which  the 
first  is  the  older  and  stronger  method,  wliile  the  second  is  a 
modern  development  and  claims  to  be  more  philosophical,  as  well 
as  more  economical,  than  the  other.  Balloon  framing  has  come 
into  use  only  since  1850,  and  is  still  regarded  with  disfavor  by 
many  architects,  especially  in  the  eastern  states.  Figs.  52  and  53 
show  the  framing  of  one  end  of  a  small  building  by  each  of  these 
methods,  the  braced  framing  in  Fig.  52,  and  the  balloon  framing 
in  Fig.  53. 

Braced  Frame.  In  a  full-braced  frame  all  the  pieces  sliould 
6e  fastened  together  with  mortise-and-tenon  joints,  but  this  is 
much  modified  in  common  practice,  a  so-called  "  combination '" 
frame  being  used,  in  which  some  pieces  are  mortised  together  and 


48 


CARPENTRY 


41 


others  are  fastened  by  means  of  spikes  only.  A  framework  is 
constructed  consisting  in  each  wall  of  the  two  "corner  posts" 
A  A  (Fig.  -52),  the  "  sill "  B,  and  the  "  plate  "  C,  together  with  a 
horizontal  "  girt "  D  at  each  story,  to  support  the  floors,  and  a 
diagonal  "  brace  "  E  at  each  corner,  which,  by  keeping  the  corner 
square,  prevents  the  frame  from  being  distorted. 

Balloon  Frame.  In  a  balloon  frame  there  are  no  braces  or 
girts ,  and  the  intermediate  studs  F  F  F  (Fig.  53)  are  carried 
straight  up  from  the  sill  H  to  the  plate  K,  with  a  light  horizontal 
piece  J,  called  a  "  ribbon "  or  "  ledger  board,"  set  into  them  at 
each  floor  level  to  support  the  floors.     This  frame  depends  mainly 


Pig.  52.    Braced  Frame. 


Fig.  53.    Balloon  Frame. 


upon  the  boarding  for  its  stifPness,  but  sometimes  light  diagonal 
braces  are  set  mto  the  studs  at  each  corner  to  prevent  distortion. 
The  methods  by  which  all  these  pieces  are  framed  together  will 
be  explained  in  detail  under  the  proper  headings. 

The  Sill.  The  sill  is  the  first  part  of  the  frame  to  be  set  in 
place.  It  rests  directly  on  the  underpinning  and  extends  all 
around  the  building,  being  jointed  at  the  corners  and  spliced 
where  necessary ;  and  since  it  is  subject  to  much  cutting  and  may 
be  called  upon  to  span  quite  considerable  openings  (for  cellar 
windows,  etc.)  in  the  underpinning,  it  must  be  of  good  size. 
Usually  it  is  made  of  six  by  six  square  timber,  but  in  good  work 


49 


42 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  54.    Sill  Placed  on  Wall. 


it  should  be  six  by  eight,  and  nothing  lighter  than  six  by  six 
should  be  used  except  for  piazza  sills.  For  piazza  sills  a  four  by 
six  timber  is  used.  The  material  is  generally  spruce,  although 
sometimes  it  is  Norway  pine  or  native  pine  (depending  upon  the 
locality). 

The  sill  should  be  placed  on  the  wall  far  enough  back  from 
the  outside  face  to  allow  for  the  water  table,  which  is  a  part  of 

the  outside  finish  ;  and  one  inch 
should  be  regarded  as  the  mini- 
mum distance  between  the  out- 
side face  of  the  sill  and  the 
outside  face  of  the  underpinning 
(see  Fig.  54).  A  bed  of  mortar 
A,  preferably  of  cement  mortar, 
should  be  prepared  on  the  top 
of  the  underpinning,  in  which 
the  sill  C  should  rest ;  and  the 
under  side  of  the  sill  should  be 
painted  with  one  or  two  coats 
of  linseed  oil  to  prevent  it  from  absorbing  moisture  from  the 
masonry.  In  many  cases,  at  intervals  of  eight  or  ten  feet,  long 
bolts  B  are  set  into  the  masonr3^  These  bolts  extend  up  through 
holes  bored  in  the  sill  to  receive  them,  and  are  fastened  at  the  top 
by  a  washer  and  a  nut  screwed  down  tight.  Tliey  fasten  the  sill, 
and  consequently  the  whole  frame,  securely  to  the  underpinning, 
and  should  always  be  provided  in  the  case  of  light  frames  in 
exposed  positions. 

The  beams  or  "joists  "  D, 
which  form  '  the  framework  of 
the  first  floor,  are  supported  at 
one  or  both  ends  by  the  sill  and 
may  be  fastened  to  it  in  any  one 
of  several  different  ways.  The 
ideal  method  is  to  hang  the  joist 
in  a  patent  hanger  fastened  to  the 
sill  as  shown  in  Fig.  55,  wliere 
A  is  the  sill,  B  the  joist,  and 
C  the  hanger.      In  this  case  neither  the  sill  nor  the  joist  need  be 


Fig.  55. 


Patent  ITauger. 


50 


CARPENTRY 


43 


weakened  by  cutting,  but  this  is  too  expensive  a  method  for  ordi- 
nary work,  although  the  saving  in  laljor  largely  offsets  the  cost  of  the 
hanger.  Tlie  usual  method  is  to  cut  a  mortise  in  the  sill  to  receive 
a  tenon  cut  in  the  end  of  the  joist  (as  shown  at  A  in  Fig.  56). 
These  mortises  are  cut  in  the  inside  upper  corner-of  the  sill,  are 
about  four  inches  deep  and  cut  two  inches  into  the  width  of  the 
sill,  and  are  fixed  in  position  by  the  spacing  of  the  joists. 

Mortises  are  also  cut  in  the  sill 
to  receive  tenons  cut  in  the  lower 
ends  of  the  studs  (as  shown  at  B  in 
Fig.  57).  They  are  cut  the  full 
thickness  of  the  studding,  about  one 
and  one-half  inches  in  the  width  of  the 
sill  and  about  two  inches  deep.  The 
position  of  these  is  fixed  by  the  spac- 
ing of  the  studding,  and  by  the  con- 
dition that  the  outer  face  of  the 
studding  must  be  flush  with  the  outer  face  of  the  sill  in  order  to 
leave  a  plain  surface  for  the  boarding. 

The  sills  are  usually  halved  and  pinned  together  at  the  cor- 
ners, as  shown  in  Fig.  58  ;  but  sometimes  they  are  fastened  together 
by  means  of  a  tenon  A  cut  in  one  sill,  which  fits  into  a  mortise  cut 


Fig.  56.    Mortise  in  Sill. 


Fig.  57.    Mortise  iu  Sill  for  Studding. 


in  the  other,  as  shown  in  Fig.  59,  This  may  be  stronger  than  the 
other  method,  but  the  advantasre  trained  is  not  sufiicient  to  com- 
pensate  for  the  extra  labor  involved.     Sills  under  twenty  feet  in 


51 


44 


CARPENTRY 


length  should  be  in  one  piece,  but  in  some  cases  splicing  may  be 
necessary.  A  scarf  joint  should  always  be  used,  the  splice  should 
be  made  strong,  and  the  pieces  should  be  well  fitted  together. 

In  some  parts  of  the  country  it  is  customary  to  "  build  up  " 
the  sill  from  a  number  of  planks  two  or  three  inches  thick,  which 

are  spiked  securely  together.  A  six- 
by-six-inch  sill  may  be  made  in  this 
way  from  three  planks,  two  inches 
thick  and  six  inches  wide,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  60.  Planks  of  any  length 
may  be  used,  and  may  be  so  arranged 
as  to  break  joints  with  each  other  so 
that  the  sill  may  be  made  continuous, 
without  splicing.  It  is  often  easier 
and  cheaper  to  build  up  a  sill  in  this 
way  than  it  is  to  use  a  large,  solid 
timber,  and  if  the  parts  are  well  spiked  together,  such  a  sill  is  fully 
as  good  as  the  other.  When  a  sill  of  this  kind  is  used,  however, 
it  should  always  be  placed  on  the  wall  in  such  a  way  that  the 
planks  of  which  it  is  made  up  will  set  up  on  edge  and  not  lie  flat. 


Fig.  58.    Joint  of  Sills  at  Corner. 


Fig.  59.    Joint  of  Sills  at  Corner. 


Fig.  60,    ••Built-up"  Sill. 


The  Corner  Posts.  After  the  sill  is  in  place,  the  first  floor 
is  usually  framed  and  roughly  covered  at  once,  to  furnish  a  sur- 
face on  which  to  work,  and  a  sheltered  place  in  the  cellar  for  the 
storage  of  tools  and  materials,  after  which  the  framing  of  the  wall 
is  continued.  The  corner  posts  are  first  sot  up,  tlien  the  girts  and 
the  plate  are  framed  in  between  them,  witli  the  braces  at  the  cor- 
ners to  keep  everything  in  place ;  and  lastly  the  whole  is  filled  in 
with   studding.     The  corner  posts  are   pieces   four   by  eight,  or 


52 


CARPENTRY 


46 


sometimes  two  pieces  four  by  four  placed  close  together.  Corner 
posts  must  be  long  enough  to  reach  from  the  sill  to  the  plate* 
The  post  is  really  a  part  of  only  one  of  the  two  walls  which  meet 
at  the  corner,  and  in  the  other  wall  a  "  furring  stud  "  of  two-by- 
four  stuif  is  placed  close  up  against  the  post  so  as  to  form  a  solid 


Fig.  61.    Corner  Post  with 
One  Furring  Stud. 


Fig.  62.    Corner  Post  with 
Two  Furring  Studs. 


corner,  and  give  a  firm  nailing  for  the  lathing  in  both  walls.  This 
arrangement  is  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  61.  A  is  the  corner  post,  B 
the  furring  stud,  C  the  plastering,  and  D  the  boarding  and 
shingling  on  the  outside.  Sometimes  a  four-by-four  piece  is  used 
for  the  corner  post  and  a  two-by-four  furring  stud  is  set  close 
against  it  in  each  wall  to  form 
the  solid  corner,  as  shown  in 
plan  in  Fig.  62;  but  a  four-by- 
four-stick  is  hardly  large  enough 
for  the  long  corner  post,  and  the 
best  practice  is  to  use  a  four-by- 
eight,  although  in  very  light 
framing  a  four-by-six  might  be 
used.  A  tenon  is  cut  in  the 
foot  of  the  corner  post  to  fit  a 
mortise  cut  in  the  sill,  and  mor- 
tises c  c,  Fig.  63,  are  cut  in  the 
post  at  the  proper  level  to  re- 
ceive the  tenons  cut  in  the  girts. 
Holes  must  also  be  bored  to 
receive  the  pins  d  d  which  fasten  these  members  to  the  post. 

The  braces  are  often  only  nailed  in  place,  but  it  is  much  better 
to  cut  mortises  in  the  posts  for  these  also,  as  shown  at  A  in  Fig.  64. 
The  plate  is  usually  fastened  to  the  posts  by  means  of  spikes  only, 
but  it  may  be  mortised  to  receive  a  tenon  cut  in  the  top  of  the  post. 


Fig.  63.    Mortises  in  Corner  Post. 


53 


46 


CAKPENTRY 


In  the  case  of  a  billojii  fniiiie  no  mortises  need  be  cut  in  the 
posts  for  the  girts  or  braces,  as  they  are  omitted  in  this  frame;  but 
the  post  must  be  notched  instead,  as  shown  in  Fig.  65,  to  receive 
the  ledger  board  or  ribbon  and  the  light  braces  which  are  some- 
times used. 

The  Qirts.  The  girts  are  always  made  of  the  same  width  as 
the  posts,  being  flush  with  the  face  of  the  post  botli  outside  and 
inside,  and  the  depth  is  usnally  eight  inches,  although  sometimes 
a  six-inch  timber  may  be  used.  The  si/e  is,  tlierefore,  usually 
four  by  eight.     A  tenon  at  each  end  fits  into  the  mortise  cut  in  the 


Fig.  64.     Brace  for  Post  and  Sill. 

post,  and  the  whole  is  secured  by  means  of  a  pin  il  d  as  shown  in 
Fig.  03.  The  pin  should  always  be  of  hard  wood  and  about  seven- 
eighths  inch  in  diameter.  It  is  evident  that  if  the  gifts  in  two 
adjacent  walls  were  framed  into  the  corner  post  at  the  same  level, 
the  tenons  on  the  two  girts  would  conflict  with  each  other.  (See 
Fig.  63.)  For  this  reason  the  girts  A  which  run  parallel  with  the 
floor  joists  are  raised  above  the  girts  B  on  which  these  joints  rest, 
and  are  called  "raised  girts"  to  distinguish  them  from  the  others 
which  are  called  "dropped  girts."  The  floor  joists  are  carried  by 
the  dropped  girts,  and  the  raised  girts  are  so  placed  that  they  are 
just  flush  on  top  with  the  joists  which  are  parallel  to  them. 

The  Ledger  Board.     The  heavy  girts  are  used  only  in  the 


54 


CARPENTRY 


47 


braced  frame.  In  the  balloon  frame,  light  [)ieces  called  "ledger 
boards  "  or  "  ribbons  "  are  substituted  for  them.  These  are  usu- 
ally made  about  one  inch  thick  and  six  or  seven  inches  deep,  and 
are  notched  into  the  posts  and  intermediate  studs  instead  of  being 


Fig.  65. 


Fig.  66.  .  Fig.  67. 

Notched  Studs  for  Ledger  Boards. 


framed  into  them  as  in  the  braced  frame.     This  notchinsr  is  shown 

in  Fig.  66  in  which  A  is  the  ledger  board  and  B  the  stud.     The 

ledger  boards  themselves  are  not  cut  at  all,  but  the  floor  joists 

which  they  carry  are  notched  over  them,  as  sliown  in  Fig.  67,  and 

spiked  to  them  and  to  the  stndding.     In  Fig.  67  A  is  the  joist,  B 

the  ledger  board,  and  C  the  studo 

Even    in    the    braced    frame   a 

ledger  botird  is  usually  employed 

to  support  the  joists  of  the  attic 

floor,  which    carry  little  or    no 

weight.      Tlie   disadvantage    of 

the  ledger  board  is  that  as  a  tie 

between  the  corner  posts   it  is 

less  effective  than  the  girt,  and 

consequently  a  wall  in  which  it 

has  been  substituted  for  the  girt 

is  not  as  stiff  as  one  in  which  the  girt  is  used. 

The  PlatCo  The  plate  serves  two  purposes:  first,  to  tie  the 
studding  together  at  the  top  and  form  a  finish  for  the  wall ;  and 
second,  to  furnish  a  support  for  the  lower  ends  of  the  rafters. 
(See  Fig.  68).  It  is  thus  a  connecting  link  between  the  wall  and 
the  roof,  just  as  the  sill  and  the  girts  are  connecting  links  between 


Fig.  68.  Fig.  69. 

Construction  at  Plate. 


55 


4b 


CAKPENTR£ 


the  floors  and  the  wall.  Sometimes  the  plate  is  also  made  to 
support  the  attic  floor  joists,  as  shown  in  fig.  68,  in  which  A  is 
a  rafter,  B  tlie  joist  spiked  to  the  rafter,  C  the  plate  built  up 
from  two  two-by-four  pieces,  and  D  the  wall  stud.  It  acts  in 
this  case  like  a  girt,  but  this  arrangement  is  not  very  common, 
the  attic  floor  joists  usually  being  supported  on  a  ledger  board  as 
shown  in  Fig.  67o     The  plate  is  merely  spiked  to  the  corner  posts 

and  to  the  top  of  the  studding; 
but  at  the  corner  where  the 
phites  in  two  adjacent  walls 
come  together,  they  should  be 
connected  by  a  framed  joint, 
usually  halved  together  in  the 
same  way  as  the  sill.  In  the 
braced  frame,  a  fairly  heavy 
piece,  usually  a  four  by  six,  is 
used,  although  a  four  by  four  is 
probably  sufficiently  strong.  In 
a  balloon  frame  the  usual  prac- 
tice is  to  use  two  two-by-four 
pieces  placed  one  on  top  of  the 
other  and  breaking  joints,  as 
shown  at  A  in  Fig.  70,  in  order  to  form  a  continuous  piece.  The 
corner  joint  is  then  formed,  as  shown  at  B  in  Fig.  70.  No  cutting 
is  done  on  the  plate  except  at  the  corners,  the  rafters  and  the  attic 
floor  joists  being  cut  over  it,  as  shown  in  Figs.  68  and  69. 

Braces.  Braces  are  used  as  permanent  parts  of  the  structure 
only  in  braced  frames,  and  serve  to  stiffen  the  wall,  to  keep  the 
corners  square  and  true,  and  to  prevent  the  frame  from  being  dis- 
torted by  lateral  forces,  such  as  wind.  In  a  full-braced  frame,  a 
brace  is  placed  wherever  a  sill,  girt,  or  plate  makes  an  angle  with 
a  corner  post,  as  shown  at  E  in  Fig.  52.  Braces  are  placed  so  as  to 
make  an  angle  of  fortj'-five  degrees  with  the  post,  and  should  be 
long  enough  to  frame  into  the  corner  post  at  a  height  of  from  one- 
third  to  one-half  the  height  of  the  story.  This  construction  is 
often  modified  in  practice,  and  the  braces,  are  placed  as  showni  at 
A  in  Fig.  71.  Such  a  frame  is  not  quite  so  stiff  and  strong  as  the 
regular  braced  frame,  but  it   is  sufficiently  strong  in  most  cases. 


Fig.  70.    Construction  at  Corner, 
"  Breaking  Joints." 


56 


CARPENTRY 


49 


The  braces  are  made  the  same  width  as  the  posts  and  girts, 
usually  four  iuches,  to  be  flush  with  these  pieces  botii  outside  and 
iuside,  and  are  made  of  three-by-four  or  foiu"- 
by-four  stuff.  They  are  framed  into  the  posts 
and  girders  or  sills,  by  means  of  a  tenon  cut 
in  the  end  of  the  brace,  and  a  mortise  cut  in 
the  post  or  girt,  and  are  secured  by  a  hard- 
wood pin.  The  pin  should  be  three-quarters 
or  seven-eighths  inch  in  diameter.  The  con-' 
nection  is  shown  in  Fig.  64. 

In  a  balloon  frame,  there  are  no  perma- 
nent braces,  but  light  strips  are  nailed  across 
the  corners  while  the  framework  is  beino- 
erected,  and  before  the  boarding  has  been 
put  on,  to  keep  the  frame  in  place.  As  soon 
as  the  outside  boarding  is  in  place  these  are 
removed.  This  practice  is  also  modified,  and 
sometimes  light  braces  are  used  as  perma-  ^'^'  '^^'  ^'"'"^  ^'^'^^' 
nent  parts  of  even  a  balloon  frame.  They  are  not  framed  into 
the  other  membere,  however,  but  are  merely  notched  into  them 

and  spiked  as  sho\\Ti  in  Fig.  72. 
A  is  the  brace,  B  the  sill,  C  the 
corner  post,  and  D  D  are  studs. 
In  such  a  case  every  stud  must 
be  notched  to  receive  the  brace, 
which  is  really  the  same  as 
the  temporary  brace  mentioned 
above,  except  that  it  is  notched 
into  the  studs  instead  of  being 
merely  nailed  to  them,  and  is  not 
removed  when  the  boarding  is 
put  on.  These  braces  are  usually 
made  of  one-by-three-inch  stuff. 
Studding.  When  the  sill, 
posts,  girts,  plates,  and  braces  are 
in  place,  the  only  step  that  remains  to  complete  the  rough  framing 
of  the  wall  is  the  filling  in  of  this  framework  with  studding.  The 
studding  is  of  two  kinds,  the  heavy  pieces  which  form  the  frames 


Fiff. 


Temporary  Brace. 


57 


50 


CARPENTRY 


-A 


for  tlie  door  and  window  openings,  and  llie  stops  for  the  partitions  ; 
and  the  lighter  pieces  which  are  merely  "  filling-in  "  studs,  and 
which  are  kno^vn  by  that  name,  or  as  "  intermediate  "  studding.  , 
The  frames  for  the  door  and  window  openings  are  usually 
made  in  a  braced  frame,  from  four-by -four-inch  pieces.  A  ver- 
tical stud  A  A,  Fig.  73,  is  placed  on  each  side  of  the  opening,  the 
proper  distance  being  left  between  them,  and  horizontal  pieces 
B  B  are  framed  into  them  at  the  proper  level  to  form  the  top  and 
the  bottom  of  the  opening.     In  all  good  work  a  small  truss  is 

formed  above  each  opening  by  setting 
up  two  pieces  of  studding  C  C  over 
the  opening,  in  the  form  of  a  triangle. 
This  is  to  receive  any  weight  whicli 
comes  from  the  studding  directly 
above  the  opening,  and  cjjrry  it  to 
eithgr  side*  of  the  opening  where  it 
is  received  by  the  studding  and  in 
tliis  way  'carried  down  to  the  sill. 
Such  a  truss  is  shown  in  Fig.  73. 
The  pieces  used  are  three  by  four  or 
four  by  four,  and  may  be"  either 
framed  into  the  other  members  or 
merely  spiked.  There  should  be  a 
space  D  of  at  least  one  inch  between 
the  piece  B  forming  the  top  of  the 
window  frame  and  the  piece  E  form- 
ing the  bottom  of  the  truss,  so  that  if 
the  truss  sags  at  all  it  will  not  affect  the  window  frame.  This  is 
a  point  that  is  not  generally  recognized.  The  piece  B  is  usually 
made  to  serve  both  as  the  top  of  the  window  and  the  bottom  of 
the  truss. 

Fig.  74  shows  the  fi-aming  for  the  top  of  a  window  opening 
in  a  balloon-framed  building,  Avhere  the  ledger-board  is  partly  sup- 
ported by  the  studs  directly  over  the  opening.  Since  the  floor 
joists  rest  on  the  ledger-board,  there  may  be  considerable  weiglit 
carried  onto  these  studs ;  and  to  prevent  the  bottom  of  the  truss 
from  sacrinnjr  under  this  weight,  a  rod  should  be  inserted  as 
shown. 


Fiff.  73.    Truss  over  Window. 


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CARPENTRY 


51 


In  the  balloon  fnune,  the  door  and  window  studs  are  almost 
always  made  of  two  two-by-foilr  pieces  i)laced  close  together, 
and  in  this  case  the  connection  of  the  pieces  forming  tlie  top  and 


Fig.  74.     Truss  over  Window.     Balloon  Frame. 

bottom  of  the  frame  with  those  forming  the  sides  is  made  as  shown 
at  A  in  Fig.  75.  It  should  be  noticed  that  in  a  balloon  frame  all 
studding  is  carried  clear  up  from  the  sill  to  the 
plate,  so  that  if  there  is  an  opening  in  the  wall 
of  the  first  story,  and  no  corresponding  open- 
ings in  those  of  the  second  or  third  story,  the 
door  and  window  studding  must  still  be  carried 
double,  clear  up  to  the  plate,  and  material  is 
thus  wasted.  In  designing  for  balloon  frames, 
therefoi-e,  it  is  well  to  take  care  that  the  window 
openings  in  the  second  story  come  directly 
above  those  in  t!ie  first  story  wherever  this  is 
possible.  The  same  difficulty  does  not  occur  in  the  case  of  a 
braced  frame,  because  in  such  a  frame  the  studding  in  each  story 
is  independent  of  that  in  the  story  above  or  below  it,  and  the 
openings  may  be  arranged  independently  in  the  different  stories. 


Fiff.  75. 


59 


52 


CARPENTRY 


Nailing  Surfaces.  Wlieievur  a  partition  meets  an  outside 
wall,  a  stud  wide  enough  to  extend  beyond  the  partition  on  both 
sides  and  afford  a  solid  nailing  for  the  latliing  must  be  inserted. 
A  nailing  surface  must  be  provided  for  the  lathing  on  both  the 
outside  wall  and  the  partition,  and  the  first  stud  in  the  partition 
wall  is  therefore  set  close  up  against  the  wall  stud,  forming  a  solid 
corner.  This  arrangement  is  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  76.  The 
large  wall  stud  A  is  usually  made  of  a  four-by-eiglit  piece  set  flat- 
wise in  the  wall  so  that  if  the  partition  is,  say,  four  inches  wide, 
there  is  a  clear  nailing  surface  of  two  inches  on  each  side  of  the 
partition.  A  four-l)y-six  piece  could  also  be  used  here,  leaving  a 
clear  nailing  surface  of  one  inch  on  each  side  of  the  partition. 

3        F==, 


Fig.  76.  Fig.  77.  Fig.  78. 

Arrangement  of  Studding  for  Nailing  Surfaces. 

Sometimes  the  same  thing  is  accomplished  by  using  two  four- 
by-four  pieces  placed  close  together  as  shown  in  phin  in  Fig.  77, 
instead  of  one  four-by-eight  piece.  Sometimes  two  pieces,  two-by- 
four  or  three-by-four,  are  used,  placed  far  enough  a[)art  so  that 
they  afford  a  space  for  nailing  on  each  side  of  the  partition,  as 
shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  78.  Whenever  this  is  done,  small  blocks 
A,  Fig.  79,  should  be  cut  in  between  the  two  studs  at  intervals  of 
two  to  three  feet  throughout  their  height,  to  give  them  added  stiff- 
ness and  make  them  act  together. 

The  end  in  view  in  every  case  is  to  obtain  a  solid  corner  on 
each  side  of  the  partition  where  it  joins  the  wall,  and  any  con- 
struction winch  accomplishes  this  is  good.  In  the  best  work, 
however,  the  four-by-eight  solid  piece  is  used,  and  this  construc- 
tion can  always  be  depended  upon.  It  makes  no  difference  what 
the  angle  between  the  wall  and  the  partition  may  be,  but  usually 
this  angle  is  a  right  angle. 

Intermediate  Studding.  The  pieces  which  make  up  the 
largest  part  of  the  wall  frame  are  tlie  "  filling-in,"  or  "  intermedi- 
ate "  studs.  These,  as  the  name  implies,  are  used  merely  to  fill 
up  the  frame  made  by  the  other  heavier  pieces,  and  afford  a  nail- 


60 


CARPEXTIIY 


ing  surface  for  the  boarding,  which  covers  the  frame  on  the  out- 
side, and  the  hithing,  which  covers  it  on  the  inside.  The  filUng-in 
studs  are  usually  placed  sixteen  inches  apart,  measured  from  the 
cenl;er  of  one  stud  to  the  center  of  the  next.  In  especially  good 
work  they  are  sometimes  placed  only  twelve  inches  apart  on  cen- 
ters, but  this  is  unusual.  In  no  case  should  they  be  placed  more 
than  sixteen  inches  apart,  even  in  the  lightest  work.  The  studs 
are  made  the  full  width  of  the  wall,  usually  four  inches,  but  some- 
times in  large  buildings  (such  as  churches)  five  or  even  six 
inches.  They  are  almost  always  two  inches  thick,  two  by  four 
being  the  ordinary  dimensions  for 
studding,  and  the  lengths  are  cut 
to  fit  the  rest  of  the  frame. 

In  the  braced  frame,  'there 
must  necessarily  be  a  great  deal 
of  cuttincT  of  the  intermediate  stud- 
ding,  because  all  the  large  pieces 
are  made  the  full  width  of  the 
wall,  and  the  intermediate  stud- 
ding mast  be  cut  to  fit  between 
them.  In  the  balloon  frame,  how- 
ever, the  intermediate  studding  in 
all  cases  extends  clear  up  from  the 

sill  to  the  plate,  and  no  cutting  is  necessary  except  the  notching 
to  receive  the  other  parts  of  the  frame.    •  (See  Fig.  53.) 

In  a  balloon  frame  it  often  happens  that  the  studs  are  not 
long  enough  to  reach  from  the  sill  to  the  plate  and  they  must  be 
pieced  out  with  short  pieces  which  are  spliced  onto  the  long  stud. 
This  splicing  is  called  "fishing,"  and  it  is  accomplished  by  nailing 
a  short,  thin  strip  of  wood  A  A  on  each  side  of  the  stud  as  shown  in 
Fig.  40  in  order  to  join  the  two  pieces  firml}'  together.  The 
strips  should  be  well  nailed  to  each  piece. 

All  door  and  window  studs  should  have  a  tenon  cut  at  the 
foot  of  the  piece  to  fit  a  mortise  cut  in  the  sill.  Intermediate 
studs  are  merely  spiked  to  the  sill  without  being  framed  into  it. 
The  tenons  are  cut  in  two  different  ways,  as  shown  in  Figs.  80 
and  81.  They  are  always  made  the  full  thickness  of  the  piece, 
an^  by  the  first  method  they  are  placed   in  the  middle   of  the 


Fig.  79. 


Wall  Studdincr. 


61 


54 


CARPENTliY 


piece,  as  shown.  The  width  of  the  tenon  is  about  one  and  one- 
lialf  inches,  leaving  an  inch  and  a-half  on  the  outside  and  one 
incli  on  the  inside  of  the  stud.  Another  way  is  to  make  the 
tenon  on  the  inside  of  the  stud,  as  shown  in  Fig.  81,  tlie  tenon 
being  an  inch  and  a-half  wide  as 
before.  There  is  no  choice  between 
these  two  methods,  both  being  good. 

Partitions.  The  studding  used 
in  partition  walls  is  usually  of  two- 
by-four  stuff,  although  two-by-three 
studding  may  sometimes  be  used  to 
advantage  if  the  partition  does  not 
support  any  floor  joists. 

The  partition  walls  are  made  four  inches  wide,  the  same  as 
in  the  outer  walls,  except  in  the  case  of  so-called  "  furring  "  par- 
titions. These  are  built  around  chimney  breasts  and  serve  to 
conceal  the  brickwork  and  furnish  a  surface  for  plastering.  They 
are  formed  by  placing  the  studding  flatwise,  iii  order  to  make  a 
thin  wall;  and  as  it  is  usually  specified  that  no  woodwork  shall 
_^  =  T,  come   within    (tne    inch  of    any 

mA  ,.  .ri ,,,,,,,,,, «i  ^  chimney,  a  one-inch  s})ace  is  letx 

between  the  brickwork  iwid  the 


Fig.  80.  TeuousforStuds.  Fig.81. 


Fig.  82.  Plastering  around  Chimney. 


furring  wall.  It  is  possible  to 
apply  the  plaster  directly  to  the 
brickwork,  and  this  is  sometimes 
done,  but  there  is  alwitTy-s  danger 
that  cracks  will  appear  in  the 
plastering  at  the  corner  A,  Fig.  82,  between  the  chimney  breast 
and  the  outside  wall.  This  cracking  is  due  to  the  unequal  settle- 
ment of  the  brickwork  aiul  the  woodwork,  since  the  plastering 
goes  with  the  wall  to  which  it  is  applied.  The  method  of  con- 
structing the  furring  wall  is  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  83.  A  A  are 
the  furring  studs,  B  is  the  plastering,  and  C  C  the  studding  in 
the  outside  wall.  The  arrangement  without  the  furring  wall  is 
shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  82.  If  there  are  any  openings  in  the 
furring  wall  such  as  fireplaces,  or  "thimbles"  for  stove  pipes,  it 
is  necessary  to  frame  around  them  in  tlie  same  way  as  was 
explained  for  door  and  window  o[)enings  in   the   outside   walls. 


62 


CARPENTRY 


55 


See  Fig.  84.     A  A  are  furring  stuus,  B  B  ure  pieces  forming  the 
top  and  bottom  of  the  opening. 


Fig.  83.     Furring  Wall  around  Chimney. 

Masonry  Walls.  If  the  outside  walls  of  the  building  are  of 
brick  or  stone,  a  wooden  "  furring  "  wall  is  usually  built  just 
inside  of  the  outer  wall ;  this  furnishes  a  surface  for  plastering 
and  for  nailing  the  inside  finish.  The  studding  for  these  walls  is 
two-by-four  or  two-by-thvee  set  close  up  against  the  masonry  wall 


A- 


Fig.  84.    Opening  for  Thimble. 


Fig.  85.     Furring  for  Brick  Wall. 


and  preferably  spiked  to  it  (see  Fig.  85).  Spikes  are  usually 
driven  directly  into  the  mortar  between  the  bricks  or  stones  of 
the  wall,  but  sometimes  wooden  blocks  or  wedges  are  inserted  in 
the  masonry  wall  to  afford  a  nailing. 

"Wherever  a  wooden  partition  wall  meets  a  masonry  exterior 
wall  at  an  angle,  the  last  stud  of  the  partition  wall  should  be 


63 


56 


CARPENTRY 


securely  spiked  to   the  inasoiiiy  wall,  to   prevent  cracks   iu   tlio 
plastering. 

Cap  and  Sole.  All  partition  walls  are  finished  at  the  top 
and  hottom  by  horizontal  pieces,  called  respectively  the  cap  and 
the  sole.  The  sole  rests  directly  on  the  rough  flooring  whenever 
there  is  no  partition  under  the  one  which  is  being  built ;  but  if 
there  is  a  partition  in  the  story  below,  the  cap  of  the  lower  par- 
tition is  used  as  the  sole  for  the  one  above.  The  sole  is  made 
wider  than  the  studding  forming  the  partition  wall,  so  that  it  pro- 
jects somewhat  on  each  side  and  gives  a  nailing  for  the  plasterer's 


Fig.  86. 


Sole  Piece. 


Fig.  87.     Partitioa  Cap. 


grounds  and  for  the  inside  finish.  It  is  usually  made  about  two 
inches  tliick  and  five  and  a-half  inches  wide,  when  the  partition  is 
composed  of  four-inch  studding,  and  this  leaves  a  nailing  surface 
of  three-quarters  of  an  inch  on  each  side.  The  sole  is  shown  at  B 
in  Fig.  86.  The  cap  is  usually  made  the  same  width  as  the  stud- 
ding, and  two  inches  thick,  so  that  a  two-by-four  piece  may  be 
used  in  most  cases ;  but  if  the  partition  is  called  upon  to  support 
the  floor  beams  of  the  floor  above,  the  cap  may  liave  to  be  made 
three  or  even  four  inches  thick,  and  some  architects  favor  the  use 
of  hardwood  such  as  Georgia  pine  for  tlie  partition  caps.  The 
cap  is  shown  at  A,  Fig.  87. 

Bridging,  in  order  to  stiffen  the  partitions,  short  pieces  of 
studding  are  cut  in  between  the  regular  studding  in  such  a  way  as 
to  connect  each  piece  with  the  pieces  on  each  side  of  it.  Thus,  if 
one  piece  of  studding  is  for  any  reason  excessively  loaded,  it  will 


64 


CARPENTRY 


57 


not  have  to  carry  the  whole  load  alone  but  will  be  assisted  by  the 
other  pieces.  This  operation  is  called  "  bridging,"  and  there  are 
two  kinds,  which  may  be  called  "horizontal  bridging"  and  "diag- 
onal bridging."  The  horizontal  bridging  consists  of  pieces  set  in 
horizontally  between  the  vertical  studding  to  form  a  contmuous 
horizontal  line  across  the  wall,  every  other  piece,  however,  being  a 
little  above  or  below  the  next  piece  as  shown  in  Fig.  88.  The  pieces 
are  two  inches  thick  and  the  full 
width  of  the  studding  ;  and  in  addi- 
tion to  strengthening  the  wall,  they 
prevent  fire  or  vermin  from  passing 
through,  and  also  may  be  utilized 
as  a  naihng  surface  for  any  inside 
finish  such  as  wainscoting  or  chair 
rails. 

The  second  method,  which  we 
have  called  diagonal  bridging,  is 
more  effective  in  preventing  the 
partition  from  sagging  than  is  the 
straight  bridging,  but  both  methods 
may  be  used  with  equal  propriety. 
In  the  diagonal  bridging  the  short 
pieces  are  set  in  diagonally  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  89,  instead  of 
horizontally,  between  the  vertical  studding.  Tliis  method  is  cer- 
tainly more  scientific  than  the  other,  since  a  continuous  truss  is 
formed  across  the  w^all. 

All  partitions  should  be  bridged  by  one  of  these  methods,  at 
least  once  in  the  height  of  each  story,  and  the  bridging  pieces 
should  be  securely  nailed  to  the  vertical  studding  at  both  ends. 
It  is  customary  to  specify  two  tenpenny  nails  in  each  end  of  each 
piece.  Bridging  should  be  placed  in  the  exterior  walls  as  well  as 
in  the  partition  walls  ;  and  as  a  furtlier  precaution  against  fire,  it  is 
good  practice  to  lay  three  or  four  courses  of  brickwork,  in  mortal-, 
on  top  of  the  bridging  in  all  walls,  t^revent  the  fire  from  gaining 
headway  in  the  wall  before  burning  waugli  and  being  discovered. 
This  construction  is  shown  in  Fig.  90. 

Special  Partitions.  A  partition  in  which  there  is  a  sliding 
door  must  be  made  double  to  provide  a  space  into  which  the  door 


Fig.  88. 


Horizontal  Bridging. 


65 


58 


CAPiPEXTRY 


may  slide  when  it  is  open.  This  is  done  by  buihling  two  walls 
far  enough  apart  to  allow  the  door  to  slide  between  them,  the 
studding  being  of  two-by-four  or  two-by-three  stuff,  and  placed 
either  flatwise  or  edgewise  in  the  wall.  If  the  studdii)g  is  placed 
flatAvise  in  the  wall,  a  thinner  wall  is  possible,  but  the  construction 
is  not  so  good  as  in  the  case  where  the  studs  are  placed  edgewise. 
if  the  partition  is  to  support  a  floor,  one  wall  must  be  made  at 
least  four  inches  thick  to  support  it,  and  the  sttids  in  ,he  other  wall 


Fig.  89.    Diagonal  Bridging. 


Fig.  90.     Brick  Work  on  Bridging. 


may  then  be  placed  flatwise  if  desired,  and  the  floor  supported 
entirely  on  the  thick  wall.  The  general  arrangement  is  shown  in 
plan  in  Fig.  91.  It  is  better  to  use  two-by-three  studding  set 
edgewise  in  each  wall  so  as  to  make  two  three-inch  walls  with  space 
enough  between  to  allow  the  door  to  slide  freely  after  the  pocket 
has  been  lined  with  sheathing. 

A  piece  of  studding  A,  Fig.  92,  should  be  cut  in  horizontally 
between  each  pair  of  studs  B,  eight  or  ten  irches  above  the  top  of 
the  door,  in  order  to  keep  the  pocket  true  and  square.  The  pocket 
should  be  lined  on  the  inside  with  matched  sheathing  C. 

It  is  well  known  thjit  ordinary  partitions  are  very  good  con- 
dirctors  of  sound ;  and  in  certain  cases,  as  in  te-nement  houses,  this 
is  objectionable,  so  that  special  construction  is  required.     If  tw© 


66 


CARPENTRY 


59 


walls  are  bui-t  entirely  separate  from  each  other,  and  not  touching 
at  any  place,  the  transmission  of  sound  is  much  retarded;  and  if 
heavy  felt  paper  or  other  material  is  put  in  between  the  walls, 
the  partition  is  made  still  more  nearly  sound-proof«  In  order  to 
decrease  tlie  thickness  of  guch  a  wall  as  much  as  possible,  the 
"staggered"  partition  is  used,  in  which  there  are  two  sets  of  stud- 
ding, one  for  each  side  of  the  wall,  but  arranged  alternately  instead 
of  in  pairs  as  in  the  double  partition.  The  arrangement  is  shown 
in  plan  in  Fig.  93.     The  two  walls  are  entirely  separate  from  each 

other  and  the  felt  paper  may  be 
worked  in  between  the  studs  as 
shown,  or  the  whole  space  may  be 
packed  full  of  some  sound-proof 
and  fireproof  material  such  as  min- 
eral wool.  There  is  a  so-called 
"quilting  paper"  or  "sheathing 
quilt  "  manufactured  from  seaweed, 
which  is  much  used  for  this  pur- 
pose 


The  inside  edges  of  the  two 


:^s 


-^  -^  ■-  •- 


h    ^    -TiS. 


m^       'm 


■-  -~  ■-  ^ 


Fig.  91.    Double  Partition  for  Sliding 
Door. 


Fig.  92.    Double  Partition. 


Fig.  93.    Sound-proof  Partition. 


sets  of  studs  are  usually  placed  on  a  line,  making  the  whole  wall 
eight  inches  thick  where  four-inch  studding  is  used,  and  the 
studs  may  be  placed  about  sixteen  inches  on  centers  in  each  wall. 
Each  set  of  studding  should  be  bridged  separately. 

Another  case  where  a  double  wall  may  be  necessary,  is  where 
pipes  from  heaters  or  from  plumbing  fixtures  are  to  be  carried  ui 
the  wall  In  case  of  hot  pipes,  care  must  be  taken  to  have  the 
space  large  enough  so  tliat  the  woodwork  will  not  come  danger- 
ously near  the  pipes. 


67 


00  CARPENTRY 


An  important  matter  in  connection  with  the  framing  of  the 
partitions  is  the  way  in  which  they  are  supported ;  but  this  involves 
knowledge  of  the  framing  oi  the  floor,  and  therefore  it  will  be  left 
for  the  present.  It  will  'jn  taten  up  after  we  have  considered  the 
floor  framing. 

Shrinkage  and  Settlement.  An  important  point  which 
must  be  considered  in  connection  with  the  framing  of  the  walls 
and  partitions,  is  the  settlement  due  to  the  shrinkage  of  timber  as 
it  seasons  after  being  put  in  place.  Timber  always  shrinks  con- 
siderably across  the  grain,  but  very  little  in  the  direction  of  the 
grain ;  so  it  is  the  horizontal  members  such  as  the  sills,  girts,  and 
joists  which  cause  trouble,  and  not  the  vertical  members  such  as 
the  posts  and  studding.  Every  inch  of  horizontal  timber  between 
the  foundation  wall  or  interior  pier  and  the  plate  is  sure  to  con- 
tract a  certain  amount,  and  as  the  walls  and  partitions  are  sup- 
ported on  these  horizontal  members,  they  too  must  settle  somewhat. 
If  the  exterior  and  interior  walls  settle  by  exactly  the  same 
amount,  no  harm  will  be  done,  since  the  floors  and  ceilings  will 
remain  level  and  true  as  at  first ;  but  if  they  settle  unequally,  all 
the  levels  in  the  building  will  be  disturbed,  and  the  result  will  be 
cracking  of  the  plastering,  binding  of  doors  and  windows,  and  a 
general  distortion  of  the  whole  frame.  This  must  be  avoided  if 
possible. 

It  is  evident  that  one  way  to  prevent  unequal  settlement,  sc 
far  at  least  as  it  is  due  to  the  shrinkage  of  the  timber,  is  to  make 
the  amount  of  horizontal  timber  in  the  exterior  and  interior  walls, 
equal.  Thus,  starting  at  the  bottom,  we  have  from  the  masonry 
of  the  foundation  wall  to  the  top  of  the  first-floor  joists  in  the  out- 
side walls,  ten  inches,  or  the  depth  of  the  joists  themselves,  since 
these  rest  directly  on  the  top  of  the  wall.  In  the  interior  we 
have,  if  the  joints  are  framed  flush  into  a  girder  of  equal  depth, 
the  sqjne  amount,  so  that  here  the  settlement  will  be  equal.  But 
the  studding  in  the  exterior  wall  rests,  not  on  the  top  of  the  joists, 
but  on  the  top  of  the  six-inch  sill,  while  the  interior  studding 
rests  on  top  of  the  ten-inch  girder.  Here  is  an  inequality  of  four 
inches  which  must  be  equalized  before  the  second  floor  level  is 
readied.  If  the  outer  ends  of  the  second-floor  joists  rest  on  the 
top  of  an  eight-inch  girt,  and  the  inner  ends  on  a  four-inch  par- 


68 


CARPENTRY  61 


titioii  cap,  this  equalizes  tlie  horizontal  timber  inside  ami  outside, 
and  the  second  tloor  is  safe  against  settlement.  The  same  process 
of  equalization  may  be  continued  to  the  top  of  the  building,  and  if 
this  is  done  it  will  go  far-  toward  preventing  the  evils  resulting 
from  settlement  and  shrinkage. 

With  a  balloon  frame  this  cannot  be  done,  because  there  are 
no  girts  in  the  outside  walls,  but  only  ledger-boards  which  are  so 
fastened  that  they  cannot  shrink,  while  in  the  interior  walls  we 
have  still  the  partition  caps.  All  that  can  be  done  iu  this  case  is 
to  make  the  depths  of  the  sills  and  interior  girders  as  nearly  equal 
as  possible,  and  to  make  the  partition  caps  as  shallow  as  will  be 
consistent  with  safety. 

THE    FLOORS. 

After  the  wall,  the  next  important  part  of  the  house  frame  to 
be  considered  is  tlie  floors,  which  are  usually  framed  while  the 
wall  is  being  put  up  and  before  it  is  finished.  They  must  be 
made  not  only  strong  enough  to  carry  any  load  which  may  come 
upon  them,  but  also  stiff  enough  so  that  they  will  not  vibrate 
when  a  person  walks  across  the  floor,  as  is  the  case  in  some 
cheaply-built  houses.  The  floors  are  formed  of  girders  and 
beams,  or  "joists,"  the  girders  being  large,  heavy  timbers  which 
support  the  lighter  joists  when  it  is  impossible  to  allow  these  to 
span  the  whole  distance  between  the  outside  walls. 

Girders  are  generally  needed  only  in  the  first  floor,  since  in 
all  the  other  floors  the  inner  ends  of  the  joists  may  be  supported 
by  the  partitions  in  the  floor  below.  The}-  are  usually  of  wood, 
though  it  may  sometimes  be  found  economical  to  use  steel  beams 
in  large  buildings.  Wrought  iron  was  once  used,  but  steel  is 
now  xjheaper  and  has  taken  the  place  of  Avrought  iron.  It  is 
rarely,  however,  that  this  will  be  found  expedient,  and  hard  pine 
girdei-s  will  answer  very  well  in  most  cases.  The  conn^tions 
used  in  the  case  of  steel  girders  will  be  explained  later.  The 
girders  may  be  of  spruce  or  even  of  hemlock,  but  it  is  hard  to  get 
the  hemlock  in  such  large  sizes  as  would  be  required  for  such 
girders,  and  spruce,  too,  is  hardly  strong  enough  for  the  purpose. 
Southern  pine,  therefore,  is  usually  employed  for  girders  in  the 
best  work. 


69 


G2  CARPENTRY 


The  size  of  the  girdei-  depends  on  the  span,  or  the  distance 
between  the  supporting  walls,  and  upon  the  loads  which  the  floor 
is  expected  to  carry.  In  general,  the  size  of  a  beam  or  girder 
varies  directly  as  the  length  of  the  span,  so  that  if  we  have 
two  spans,  one  of  which  is  twice  as  great  as  the  other,  the  girder 
for  tlie  longer  span  should  be  twice  as  strong  as  the  girder 
for  the  smaller  span.  In  ordinary  houses,  however,  all  the 
girders  are  made  about  eight  by  twelve  inches  in  section,  although 
sometimes  an  eight-by-eight  timl)er  would  suffice,  and  sometimes 
perliaps  a  twelve-inch  piece  would  be  required. 

It  should  be  remembered  in  deciding  upon  the  size  of  this 

piece,  that  any  girder  is  increased  in 
strength  in  direct  proportion  to  the 
width  of  the  timber  (that  is,  a  girder 
12  inches  wide  is  twice  as  strong  as 
one  6  inches  wide),  but  in  direct 
proportion  also  to  the  square  of  the 
depth  (that  is,  a  girder  12  inches 
p.     Q^  deep  is  four  times  as  strong  as  one  6 

inches  deep).  Hence  the  most  eco- 
nomical girder  is  one  which  is  deeper  than  it  is  wide,  such  as 
an  eight-by-twelve  stick;  and  the  widtii  may  be  decreased  by 
any  amount  so  long  as  it  is  wide  enough  to  provide  sufficient  stiff- 
ness, and  the  depth  is  sufficient  to  enable  the  piece  to  carry  the 
load  placed  upon  it.  If  the  piece  is  made  too  narrOAV  in  proportion 
to  its  depth,  however,  it  is  likely  to  fail  by  '*  buckling,"  that  is,  it 
would  bend  as  shown  in  Fig.  94.  The  width  should  be  at  least 
equal  to  one-sixth  of  the  depth. 

There  are  at  least  three  ways  in  which  the  joists  may  be  sup- 
ported by  the  girder.  The  best  but  most  expensive  method  is  to 
support  the  ends  of  the  joists  in  patent  hangers  or  stirrup  irons 
which  connect  with  the  girder.  This  method  is  the  same  as  was 
described  for  the  sill,  except  that  with  the  girder  a  double  stirrup 
iron,  such  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  95,  may  be  used.  These  stirrup- 
iron  hangers  are  made  of  wrought  iron,  two  and  one-half  or  three 
inches  wide,  and  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  bent  into 
the  required  shape.  They  usually  fail  by  the  crushing'  of  the 
wood  of  the  girders,  especially  when  a  single  hanger,  like  thut 


70 


CAflPENTIir 


63 


shown  ill  Fig.  96,  is  used.  Fig.  97  shows  a  double  stirrui>iron 
hanger  in  use.  Patent  liangers  as  shown  in  Fig.  98  are  by  far 
the  best. 

If  hangers  of  any  kind  are  used,  there  will  be  no  cutting  of 
the  girdtir  except  at  the  ends  whei-e  It  frames  into  the  sill,  and 
even  there  a  hanger  may  I>e  used.  The  girder  may  be  placed  so 
that  the  joists  will  be  flusli  with  it  on  top,  or  so  that  it  is  flush 


Fig.  95. 


Fig.  90. 


with  the  sill  on  top.  If  the  joists  are  flush  with  the  girder  on  top, 
and  are  framed  into  the  sill  in  the  ordinary  way,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
99,  the  girder  cannot  be  flush  on  top  with  the  sill ;  wliile,  on  the 
other  hand,  if  the  girder  is  flush  Avith  the  sill  on  top,  it  cannot  at 
the  same  time  be  flush  with  the  joists  on  top.  If  joist  hangers 
are  used  on  the  girder  to  support  the  joists,  they  will  probably  be 


Iron  v3t>r<ip 


Hole  m  Gipdcr 
h^rt   for  faj 


Fig.  97. 


Fig.  98. 


used  on  the  sill  as  well,  as  explained  in  connection  with  the  sill; 
and  in  this  case  the  girder  can  be  naade  flush  with  the  sill  on  top 
and  the  joists  hung  from  both  givder  and  sill  with  hangers,  thus 
bringing  both  ends  of  the  joist  at  the  same  level,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
100.     If  the  girder  is  .framed  into  the  sill  at  all,  it  would  almost 


71 


64 


carpp:xtry 


always  be  made  flush  with  the  sill  on  top,  and  the  joists  would  be 
arranged  so  as  to  be  level. 

For  framing  the  girder  into  the  sill,  a  tenon-and-tusk  joint, 

as  shown  in  Fig.  101,  would  be 

used  if  the  girder  is  to  be  flush 

with  the  sill  on  top.     Since  the 

girder  would  in  most  cases  be 

deeper  than  the  sill,  the  latter 

having  a  depth  of  only  six  inches, 

the  wall  would  necessarily  have 

to  be  cut  away  in  order  to  make 

a  place  for  the    girder.      This 

condition  is    clearly   shown    in 

Fig.  102.     The   girder   itself  should  not  be  cut    over   tlie    wall 

as    shown    in   Fig.   103,     because      this    greatly     weakens     the 

girder.     If  this  method  is  used,  the  joists  should  be  framed  into 


Fig.  99.   Framing  of  Joist  into  Sill. 


Fig.  100.     Use  of  Hangers. 

the  girder  in  the  same  way  as  they  are  framed  into  the  sill,  a 
mortise  being  cut  in  the  girder  and  a  tenon  on  the  joist.  This  is 
called  "gaining"  and  is  shown  in 
Fig.  99.  The  top  of  the  girder  thus 
comes  several  inches  below  the  top 
of  the  floor. 

Another  method  is  to  make  the 
top  of  the  girder  flush  with  the  top 
of  the  joists.  The  joists  are  then 
framed  into  the  girder  with  a  tenon- 
and-tusk  joint,  as  shown  in  Fig.  101, 
and  the  girder  is  "gained"  into  the  sill   as  shown   in    Fig.  99- 

Still   another  method   in   common    use   is   simply  to   "size 


Fig.  101.     Framing  of  Girder 
into  Sill. 


72 


CARPENTRY 


66 


down"  the  joists  oji  the  girder  about  one  inch,  us  shown  in  Fig. 
104.  In  this  case,  of  course,  the  girder  is  much  lower  than  the 
sill,  usually  so  low  that  it  cannot  be  framed  into  the  sill  at  all,  but 


Fig.  102.   Framing  of  Girder  into  Sill.  Fig.  104.   Joists  "Sized  Down." 

must  be  supported  by  the  wall  independently.  Holes  are  left  in 
the  wall  where  the  girders  come,  the  latter  being  run  into  the  holes, 
and  their  ends  resting  directly  on  the  wall,  independent  of  the  sill. 


Fig.  103.     Framing  of  Girder  into  Sill. 

This  is  not  very  good  construction,  however,  because  the  floor  is 
not  tied  together  as  it  is  when  the  girder  frames  into  the  sill. 
The  first  method  is  the  best  and  is  the  one  in  most  common 
use. 

The  girders  serve  to  support  the  partitions  as  well  as  to  sup- 
port the  floors,  and  should  therefore  be  designed  to  come  under 


73 


66  CARPENTRY 


the  partitions  wlieiiever  this  is  possible.  When  the  distance 
between  the  outside  walls  is  too  great  to  be  spanned  by  the  girder, 
it  is  supported  on  brick  piers  or  posts  of  hardwood  or  cast  iron  in 
the  cellar.  Such  piers  or  posts  should  always  be  placed  wherever 
girders  running  in  different  directions  intersect  each  other. 
Girders  are  often  supported  also  on  brick  partitions  built  in  the 
cellar. 

Joists  are  the  light  pieces  which  make  up  the  body  of 
the  floor  frame  and  to  which  the  flooring  is  nailed.  They  are 
almost  always  made  of  spruce,  although  other  woods  may  be  used, 
and  may  be  found  more  economical  in  some  localities.  They  are 
"usually  two  inches  thick,  but  the  depth  is  varied  to  suit  the  con- 
ditions. Joists  as  small  as  two-by-six  are  sometimes  used  in  very 
light  buildings,  but  these  are  too  small  for  any  floor.  They  may 
sometimes  be  used  for  a  ceiling  where  there  are  no  rooms  above, 
and  therefore  no  weight  on  the  floor.  A  very  common  size  for 
joists  is  two-by-eight,  and  these  are  probably  large  enough  for 
any  ordinary  construction,  but  joists  two-by-ten  make  a  stiflfer 
floor,  and  are  used  in  all  the  best  work.  Occasionally  joists  as 
large  as  two  by  twelve  are  used,  especially  in  large  city  houses, 
and  they  make  a  very  stiff  floor,  but  this  size  is  unusual.  If  a 
joist  deeper  than  twelve-  inches  is  used,  the  thickness  should  be 
increased  to  two  and  one-half  or  three  inches,  in  order  to  prevent 
it  from  failing  by  buckling  as  explained  in  connection  with  the 
girders.  The  size  of  the  joists  depends  in  general  upon  the  span 
and  the  spacing. 

The  usual  spacing  is  sixteen  or  twenty  inches  between  cen- 
ters, and  sixteen  inches  makes  a  better  spacing  than  twenty  inches 
because  the  joists  can  then  be  placed  close  against  the  studdhig  in 
the  outside  walls  and  spiked  to  this  studding.  It  is  generally 
])etter  to  use  light  joists  spaced  sixteen  inches  on  centers  than  to 
use  heavier  ones  spaced  twenty  inches  on  centers.  The  spacing  is 
seldom  less  than  sixteen  inches  and  never  more  than  twenty 
inches. 

Supports  for  Partitions.-  In  certain  parts  of  the  floor  frarmc 
it  may  be  necessary  to  double  the  joists  or  place  two  of  them  very 
close  together  in  order  to  support  som^  very  lieavy  concentiated 
load.     This  is  the  case  whenever  a  partition  runs  parallel  with 


74 


GRACE  MEMORIAL  CHAPEL,  CHICAGO,  ILL. 

Cram,  Goodhue  &  Ferguson,  Architects,  Boston  and  New  York. 
Jnteriorof  Gray  Pressed  Brick;  Trimmings  of  Terra-Cotta  of  Color  and  Finish  Similar  to  Bed- 
lord  Stone.    Floor  of  9-in.  Welsh  Quarries;  Chancel  Floor  of  Mercer  Tile.    For  Exterior 
See  Vol.  I,  Page  10;  for  DetaU  of  Wood-Carving,  See  VoL  II,  Page  lo. 


as  »  iS 


CARUIA(JE     WA.5n 


^-6     >;    I  o-o 


mST  rLODD  PLAN 


aoum  ELUEMOTOM 

STABLE  FOR  MR.  J.  S.  HANNAH,  LAKE  FOREST,  ILL. 

Shepley,  Rutan  &  Coolidge,  Architects,  Chicago,  111. 
For  Location,  See  Vol.  I,  Page  74;  for  Exterior  and  Plans  of  House,  See  Vol.  I,  Pages  74  and  90. 


/ 


CAKPENTKY 


G7 


the  floor  joists,  unless  it  lias  auotlier  partition  under  it.  Such 
partitions  may  be  supported  in  several  different  ways :  A  very 
heavy  joist,  or  two  joists  spiked  together,  may  be  placed  under 
the  partition,  as  shown  at  A  in  Fig.  105.  In  this  figure,  C  is  the 
sole,  B  the  under  or  rough  flooring,  and  D,  D,  D  the  studding. 
'JMiis  metliod  is  objectionable  for  two  reasons :  It  is  often  found 
convenient  to  run  pipes  up  in  the  partition,  and  if  the  single  joist 
is  placed  directly  under  the  partition  this  cannot  be  done"  except 


rtfr 


Fig.  105.  Joists  Supi)orting  Partition. 


Fig.  106. 


by  cutting  the  joist  and  thus  weakening  it.  Moreover,  if  the 
single  joist  is  used,  there  is  no  solid  nailing  for  the  finished  upper 
flooring,  unless  the  joist  is  large  enough  to  project  bej-ond  the 
partition  studding  on  each  side.  Tlie  joist  is  seldom,  if  ever, 
large  enough  for  this,  and  the  finished  floormg  must  therefore  be 
nailed  only  to  the  under  flooring  at  the  end  where  it  butts  against 
the  partition,  so  that  a  weak,  insecure  piece  of  work  is  the  result. 
This  may  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  figure. 

A  much  better  way  is  to  use  two  joists  far  enough  apart  to 
project  a  little  on  each  side  of  the  partition,  as  shown  at  A,  A  in 
Fig.  lOG,  and  thus  afford  a  nailing  for  the  finished  flooring. 
These  joists  must  be  large  enough  to  support  the  weight  of  the 
partition  without  sagging  any  more  than  do  the  other  joists  of  the 
floor,  and  therefore  joists  three  or  even  four  inches  thick  should  be 
used.  Tiiey  should  be  placed  about  six  or  seven  inches  apart  on 
centers,  and  plank  bridging  should  be  cut  in  between  them  at 
intervals  of  from  fourteen  to  twenty  inches  (as  shown  at  E  in 
Fig.  106),  in  order  to  stiffen  them  and  make  them  act  together. 
This  plank  bridging  should  be  made  of  pieces  of  joist  two  inches 


75 


68 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  107. 


Partition  Supported  by 
Strips. 


thick  and  of  the  same  depth  as  the  floor  joists,  and  shoukl  be  so 

placed  that  the  grain  will  in  every  case  be  horizontal. 

A  partition  supported  as  described  above  is  bound  to  settle 

somewhat  as  the  ten  or  more  inches  of  joist  beneath  it  shrinks  in 

seasoning,  and  the  settlement 
may  cause  cracks  in  the  plaster- 
ing at  the  corner  between  the 
partition  and  an  outside  wall. 
In  order  to  prevent  this  settle- 
ment, partitions  running  parallel 
with  the  floor  joists  are  often 
supported  on  strips  which  are 
nailed  to  the  under  side  of  the 
floor  joists,  as  shown  at  A  in 
Fig.  107.  These  strips  cannot  be 
allowed  to  project  into  the  room 
below,  and  so  they  must  be  made 

as  thin  as  possible  consistent  with  safety.     Strips  of  iron  plate 

about  one-half  inch  thick,  and  wide  enough  to  support  the  partition 

studs,  are  therefore  used  for  this  purpose,  and  are  fastened  to  the 

joists  by  means  of  bolts  or  lag  ^^^.^ 

screws.    Partitions  which  run  - 

at  rioht  ano^les   to    the  floor 

joists  can  also   be  supported 

in  this  way.     If  a  partition 

runs  at  right   angles    to  the 

joists  near  the  center  of  their 

span,    the    tendency   for  the 

joists  to  sag  under  it  will  be 

very  great,  and  they  must  be 

strengthened  either  by  using 

larger   joists,    or   by   placing 

them  closer  together.     If  the 

span  of  the  floor  joists  is  large 

and  the  partition  is  a  heavy  one,  it  may  be  necessary  to  put  in  a 

girder  running  at  right  angles  to  the  joists  to  carry  the  partition. 

In  this  case  the  partition   studs  will  set  directly  on  the  girder, 

which  may  be  a  large  timber,  or  in  some  cases,  a  steel  I-beam. 


Fi".  108.  Headers  and  Trimmers. 


76 


CARPENTRY 


69 


FijT.  109.    Connection  of  Joist  to  Sill. 


Headers  and  Trimmers.  Another  case  where  a  girder  may 
be  necessary  in  a  floor  above  the  first,  is  where  an  opening  is  to  be 
left  in  the  floor  for  a  chimney  or  for  a  stair  well.  Tlie  timbers  on 
each  side  of  such  an  opening  are  called  "trimmers,"  and  must  be 
made  heavier  than  the  ordinary  joists;  while  a  piece  called  a 
"header"  must  be  framed  in  between  them  to  receive  the  ends  of 
the  joists,  as  shown  in  Fig.  108. 
The  trimmers  may  be  made  by 
simply  doubling  up  the  floor 
joists  on  each  side  of  the  open- 
ing, or,  if  necessary,  I-beams  or 
heavy  wooden  girders  may  be 
used.  In  most  cases  these  trim- 
mers may  be  built  up  by  spiking 
together  two  or  three  joists,  and 
the  header  may  be  made  in  the 
same  way. 

Joist  Connections.  Joists  are  also  "  gained  "  into  the  sill  as 
shown  in  Fig.  56,  in  which  case  a  mortise  is  cut  in  the  sill  and  a 
corresponding  tenon  is  cut  in  the  end  of  the  joist.  The  mortise 
was  illustrated  and  described  in  connection  with  the  sill,  while 
the  end  of  the  joist  is  cut  as  shown  in  Fig.  56,  the  tenon  being 
about  four  inches  deep  and  gained  into  the  sill  about  two  inches. 
This  brings  the  bottom  of  the  joist  flush  with  the  bottom  of  the 
sill,  and  the  top  of  the  joist  somewhat  above  the  top  of  the  sfll, 

according  to  the  depth  of  the  joist. 
The  top  of  a  ten-inch  joist  would 
come  four  inches  above  the  top  of  a 
six-inch  sill,  and  the  joist  would  rest 
partly  on  the  masonry  wall  as  shown 
in  Fig.  100,  thus  relieving  the  connection  of  a  part  of  the  stress  due 
to  the  weight  of  the  loaded  joist.  A  common  but  very  bad  method 
of  framing  the  joist  to  the  sill  is  simply  to  "  cut  it  over  "  the  sill 
without  mortising  the  latter,  as  shown  in  Fig.  109.  This  does 
not  make  a  strong  connection  even  when  the  joist  rests  partly  on 
the  masonry  wall;  and  if  it  is  not  so  supported  it  is  almost  sure  to 
fad.  by  splitting,  as  shown  in  Fig.  110,  under  a  very  small  loading. 
In  fact,  it  would  be  much  stronger  if  the  joist  were  turned  upside 


Fiff.  110. 


T7 


70 


CARPENTRY 


down.  Frequently  the  joist  is  cut  as  shown  in  Fig.  Ill,  where 
the  tenon  is  sunk  into  a  mortise  cut  in  the  sill,  thus  bringing  the 
top  of  the  joist  flush  with  the  top  of  the  sill ;  but  iu  this  case  the 
bottom  of  the  joist  will  almost  invariably  drop  below  the  bottom 
of  the  sill,  and  the  wall  must  be  cut  away  to  make  room  for  it,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  102.  It  is  also  weak  in  the  same  way  as  is  the 
connection  shown  in  Fig.  110. 

The  frammg  of  the  joists  into  the  girders  may  be  accom- 
plished in  several  different 
ways,  according  to  the  posi- 
tion of  the  girder.  This  plac- 
ing of  the  girder  is  quite  an 
important  point.  The  top  of 
the  floor,  on  which  rest  the 
sole-pieces  of  the  cross-par- 
titions, must  remain  always 
true  and  level,  that  is,  the  outside  ends  of  the  joists  must  be  at 
the  same  level  as  the  inside  ends.  Otherwise  the  doors  in  the 
cross-partitions  will  not  fit  their  frames,  and  cannot  be  opened 
or  shut,  and  the  plastering  is  almost  sure  to  crack.  Both  ends 
of  the  joists  will  sink  somewhat,  on  account  of  the  shrinkage 
of  the  timber  in  seasoning,  and  the  only  way  to  make  sure  that 
the  shrinkage  at  the  two  ends  will  be  the  same  is  to  see  that 
there  is  the  same  amount  of  horizontal  timber  at  each  end  betw^een 
the  top  of  the  floor  and  the  solid  masonry.  This  is  because 
timber  shrinks  very  much  across  the  grain,  but  almost  not  at  all 
along  the  grain.     If  the  joist 


Fig.  111.     Joist  Mortised  into  Sill. 


Fig.  112.  Joist  Framed  into  Girder. 


is  framed   properly  into    the 

sill,  so  that  it  is  flush  on  the 

bottom  with  the  sill,  we  have 

at  the  outer  end  of  the  joist 

a  depth  of  horizontal  timber 

equal  to  the  depth  of  the  joist 

itself,  as  shown   in   Fig.  100;  and   in  order   to   have   the   same 

depth  of  timber  at  the  inside,  the  bottom  of  the  joist  must  be 

flush  with  the  bottom  of  the  girder,  which  usually  rests  on  brick 

piers.      Of   course    the  top  of  the  gii'der  must  not  in  any  case 

come  above  the  tops  of  the  floor  joists;  therefoie,  in  general,  the 


78 


CARPENTIJY 


71 


girder  must  be  equal  in  depth  to  the  floor  joists  and  flush  with 
tliese  joists  on  top  and  bottom,  as  shown  in  Fig-.  112.  This 
method  is  not  always  followed,  however,  in  spite  of  its  evident 
superiority ;  and  the  girder  is  often  sunk  several  inches  below  the 
tops  of  the  floor  joists,  as  shown  in  Fig.  100,  or  even  in  some 
cases  very  much  below,  as  shown  in  Fig.  113.  Both  of  these 
methods  cause  an  unsightly  projection-  below  the  ceiling  of  the 
cellar.  Where  the  joists  are  brought  flush  with  the  girder  top 
and  bottom,  they  may  be 
framed  into  it  with  a  tenon- 
and-tusk  joint,  the  joists  being 
cut  as  shown  in  Fig.  101, 
with  a  tenon  as  there  shown, 
and  a  hole  bored  through  the 
tenon  to  receive  a  pin  to  hold 
the  joist  in  place. 

Other  methods  of  fram- 
ing tenon-and-tusk  joints  are  shown  in  Figs.  33,  34,  and  35,  and 
also  a  double-tenon  joint  in  Fig.  36,  which  might  be  used  in  this 
case,  although  it  is  much  inferior  to  the  tenon-and-tusk  joint. 
Two  joists  framing  into  a  girder  from  opposite  sides  should  be 
fastened  strongly  together,  either  by  an  iron  strip  passing  over 
the  top  of  the  girder  and  secured  to  each  joist,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
114,  or  by  means  of  a  "dog"  of  romid  bar  iron,  which  is  bent  at 


Fig.  113.  Joist  Sized  Down  on  Girder. 


Fig.  114. 


Use  of  Straps  and  Dogs.        Fig.  115. 


the  ends  and  sharpened  so  that  it  may  be  driven  down  into  the 
abutting  ends  of  the  joists,  as  shown  in  Fig.  115.  These  bars 
should  be  used  at  every  fifth  or  sixth  joist,  to  form  a  series  of 
continuous  lines  across  the  building  from  sill  to  sill. 

If  the  girder  is   sunk  a  little  below  the    tops  of  the  joists, 
these  may  be  gained  into  it  in  the  same  way  as  they  are  gainctl 


79 


72 


CARPENTRY 


into  the  sill.  In  this  case  joists  should  be  arranged  as  shown  in 
Fig.  116,  so  that  they  will  not  conflict  with  one  another;  and  the 
two  adjacent  joists  may  be  spiked  together,  thus  giving  additional 
stiffness  to  the  floor.  If  the  tenon-and-tusk  connection  is  used, 
the  joists  may  be  arranged  exactly  opposite  each  other,  provided 
that  the  girder  is  sufficiently  wide,  but  it  is  alwa3'^s  much  better  to 

arrange  them  as  shown  in  Fig. 
^\.    \^^  ^^  117,  even  in  this  case.     The 

tenon  may  then  be  carried 
clear  through  the  girder  and 
fastened  by  a  dowel,  as  shown. 
Very  rarely  a  simple  double- 
tenon  joint,  such  as  that 
shown  in  Fig.  36,  might  be 
used,  but  it  is  much  inferior 
to  either  the  gaining  or  the 
tenon-and-tusk  joint. 

If  the  girder  is  sunk  very 
much  below  the  tops  of  the 
joists,  as  in  Fig.  113,  these 
will  usually  rest  on  top  of  it  and  be  fastened  by  spikes  only,  or 
will  be  "  sized  down  "  upon  it  about  one  inch,  as  shown.  There 
is  no  mortising  of-  the  girder  in  either  case.  Joists  are  also 
thus  sized  down  upon  the  girts 
and  partition  caps,  and  are  uDtched 
over  the  ledger-boards  as  shown 
in  Fig.  67.  In  cutting  the  joists 
for  sizing  and  notching,  the 
measurements  should  be  taken  in 
every  case  from  the  toji  of  the  joists, 
since  they  may  not  all  be  of  exactly 
the  same  depth,  and  the  tops  must 
all  be  on  a  level  after  they  are  in 
place.  This  is  really  the  only  reason  why  the  joists  should  be 
sized  down  at  all,  because  otherwise  they  might  simply  rest  upon 
the  top  of  the  girder,  or  girt,  and  be  fastened  by  nailing. 

Connection  to  Brick  Wall.     When  a  joist  or  girder  is  sup- 
ported at  either  end  on  a  brick  wall,  there  will  either  be  a  hole 


Fig.  116.  Joists  Framing  over  Girder. 


Fig.  117. 


80 


CARPENTRY 


73 


left  ill  the  wall  to  receive  it,  or  the  wall  will  be  corbeled  out  to 
form  a  seat  for  the  beam.  If  the  beam  enters  the  wall  the  end 
should  be  cut  as  shown  in  Fig.  118,  so  that  in  case  of  the  failure 
of  the  beam  from  overloading  or  from  fire,  it  may  fall  out  without 
injuring  the  wall.     Every  fifth  or  sixth  joist  is  held  in  place  by  an 


"^C 


^m 


^m 


Fig.  118.  Joist  Supported  by  Brick  Wall. 


Fig. 119. 


Use  of  Anchor. 


anchor  (as  shown  in  Fig.  119),  of  which  there  are  several  kinds  on 
the  market.  Fio-.  120  shows  the  result  when  a  beam  which  is 
cut  off  square  on  the  end,  falls  out  of  the  wall. 

There  must  always  be  left  around  the  end  of  a  beam  which  is 
in  the  wall  a  sufficient  space  to  allow  for  proper  ventilation  to 
prevent  dry  rot,  and  the  end  should  always  be  well  painted  to 
keep  out  the  moisture.  Patent  wall-hangers  and  box  anchors  are 
often  used  to  support  the  ends 
of  joists  in  brick  buildings,  but 
only  in  case  of  heavy  floors. 

The  floor  framing  in  a  brick 
building  is  the  same  as  that  in  a 
building  of  wood  except  that 
there  is  no  girt  to  receive  the 
ends  of  the  floor  boards,  so  that 


Fig.  120. 


a  joist  must  be  placed  close  against  the  inside  of    the  wall    all 
around  the  building  to  give  a  firm  nailing  for  the  flooring. 

Crowning.     In  any  floor,   whether  in  a  wood    or   a   brick 
building,  if  the  span  of  the  floor  joists  is  very  considerable  so  that 


81 


74 


CARPENTRY 


there  is  any  chance  for  detiectiou  they  must  be  "crowned"  in 
order  to  offset  the  effect  of  such  deflection.  The  operation  called 
"crowning"  consists  in  shaping  the  top  of  each  joist  to  a  slight 
curve,  as  shown  in  Fig.  121  B,  so  that  it  is  an  inch  or  so  higher  in 
the  middle  than  it  is  at  the  ends.  As  the  joist  sags  or  deflects,  the 
top  becomes  level  while  the  convexity  will  show  itself  in  the  bot- 
tom as  shown  in  Fig.  121  A.  Joists  need  not  be  crowned  unless 
the  span  is  quite  large  and  the  loads  heavy  enough  to  cause  a 
deflection  of  an  inch  or  more  at  the  center  of  the  joist. 


Fig.  121A.        Crowning.        Fig.  121B. 

Bridging.  Floor  frames  are  "bridged"  in  much  the  same 
way  as  was  descril)ed  fr)r  the  walls,  and  for  much  the  same  i)ur- 
pose,  namely,  to  stiffen  the  floor  frame,  to  prevent  unequal  deflec- 
tion of  the  joists,  and  to  enable  an  overloaded  joist  to  get  some 
assistance  from  the  pieces  on  either  side  of  it.  Bridging  is  of  two 
kinds,  "plank  bridging"  and  "cross  bridging,"  of  which  the  first 

has  alreadv  been  shown  in  connec- 
ticn  with  the  partition  supports. 
Plank  bridging  is  not  very  effective 
for  stiffening  the  floor,  and  cross 
bridging  is  always  preferred.  This 
bridsrinof  is  somewhat  like  the 
diajronal  bridmng:  used  in  the  walls, 
and  consists  of  pieces  of  scantling, 
usually  one-by-three  or  two-by-three 
in  size,  cut  in  diagonally  between 
the  floor  joists.  Each  jnece  is  nailed 
to  the  top  of  one  joist  and  to  the 

■ 

bottom  of  the  next;  and  two  pieces 
which  cross  each  other  are  set  close  tosxether  between  the  s:vme 
two  joists,  forming  a  sort  of  St.  Andrew's  cross,  whence  we  get 
the  name  "cross  bridging,"  or  "herring-bone  bridging  "  as  it  is 
sometimes  called.  The  arrangement  is  shown  in  Fig.  122,  and  the 
bridging  should  be  placed  in  straight  lines  at  intervals  of  eight  or 


Fig.  122.    Diagonal  Bridging. 


89 


CARPENTRY 


10 


ten  feet  across  the  whole  length  of  the  floor.  Each  piece  should 
be  well  nailed  with  two  eightpeniiy  or  tenpenny  nails  in  each 
end.  If  this  is  well  done  there  will  be  formed  a  kind  of  con- 
tinuous truss  across  the  whole  length  of  the  floor  which  will  pre- 
vent any  overloaded  joist  from  sagging  below  the  others,  and 
which  will  greatly  stiffen  the  whole  floor  so  as  to  prevent  any 
vibration.  The  bridging,  however,  adds  nothing  to  the  strength 
of  the  floor. 

Porch  Floors.  A  word  might  appropriately  be  inserted  at 
this  point  in  regard  to  the  floors  of  piazzas  and  porches.  These 
luay  be  supported  either  on  brick -piers  or  on  wooden  posts,  but 
preferably  on  piers,  as  these  are  much  more  durable  than  posts. 
If  piers  are  used,  a  sill,  usually  four  by  six  in  size,  should  be  laid 
on  the  piers  all  around,  and  light  girders  should  be  inserted 
between  the  piers  and  the  wall  of  the  house  in  order  to  divide  the 
floor  area  into  two  or  three  panels.  The  joists  may  then  be 
framed  parallel  to  the  walls  of  the  house,  and  the  floor  boards 
laid  at  right  angles  to  these  walls.  The  whole  frame  should  be 
so  constructed  that  it  will  pitch  outward,  away  from  the  house  at 
the  rate  of  one  inch  in  five 
or  six  feet,  thus  bringing 
the  outside  edge  low^er  than 
the  inside  edge  and  giving 
an  opportunity  for  the 
water  to  drain  off. 

5tairs.  The  stairs  are 
built  on  fi'ames  called 
"  stringers  "or  "carriages," 
which  may  be  considered 
as  a  part  of  the  floor  fram- 
ing. They  consist  of  pieces 
of  plank  two  or  three  inches  thick  and  twelve  or  more  inches 
wide,  which  are  -cut  to  form  the  steps  of  the  stairs  and  which 
are  then  set  up  in  place.  There  are  usually  three  of  these 
stringers  under  each  flight  of  stairs,  one  at  each  side  and  a  third 
in  the  center,  and  they,  are  fastened  at  the  bottom  to  the  floor 
and  at  the  top  to  the  joists  which  form  the  stair  well.  This 
subject  will   be   taken   up   more    fully   under  "Stair    Hnilding." 


Fig.  123.  Support  of  Corner. 


76  CAKPENTKY 


Unsupported  Corners.  An  interesting  place  in  a  floor  fram- 
ing plan  is  where  we  have  a  corner  without  any  support  beneath 
it,  as  at  the  corner  a  in  Fig.  123.  This  corner  must  be  supported 
from  the  three  points  ?>,  c,  and  d,  and  the  figure  shows  how  this  is 
accomplished.  A  piece  of  timber  e  is  placed  across  from  h  to  c, 
and  another  piece  starts  from  d  and  rests  on  the  piece  h  <?,  project- 
ing beyond  it  to  the  corner  a.  This  furnishes  a  sufficiently 
strong  support  for  the  corner. 


84 


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a 
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to 


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in 


§       S 


S    p. 


CARPENTRY 

PART    II. 


THE    ROOF. 


In  Part  I  we  saw  that  the  subject  of  framing  could  be  con- 
sidered under  three  distinct  headinors;  the  framing  of  the  wall, 
the  framing  of  the  floor,  and  the  framincr  of  the  roof.  So  far  we 
have  discussed  only  the  framing  for  the  M'all  and  that  for  the  floor, 
so  we  will  now  take  up  the  framing  for  the  roof. 

The  roof  framing  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  problems  with 
which  the  carpenter  has  to  deal,  not  because  of  the  number  of 
complicated  details,  for  there  are  few  of  these  involved,  but  on 
account  of  the  many  different  bevels  which  must.be  cut  in  order 
to  make  the  rafters  frame  into  one  another  correctly. 


Fig.  124.    Lean-to  Roof.  Fig.  13).    Pitch  or  Gable  Roof. 

Varieties  of  Roofs.  There  are  many  varieties  of  roofs,  rang- 
ing all  the  way  from  the  simple  pitch  roof  to  the  most  compli- 
cated combination  of  hips  and  valleys;  but  they  are  all  develop- 
ments of  a  few  simple  forms. 

The  lean-to  roof  is  the  simplest  of  all  and  is  usually  employed 
for  small  sheds,  piazzas,  porches,  ells,  and  in  many  other  situa- 
tions. It  is  shown  in  Fig.  124.  Its  characteristic  is  that  it  has 
but  one  sloj)e,  which  renders  it  unsightly  and  unfit  for  use  on  any 
important  structure. 

The  2^)tch^  or  gahJe,  roof  is  very  common,  and  is  also  quite 
simple  in  form.  It  has  two  slopes,  meeting  at  the  center,  or 
"ridcre,"  and  formino-  a  "gable"  at  each  end  of  the  building. 
This  form  of  roof  is  shown  in  Fig.  125.  It  is  popular  on  account 
of  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  constructed.  It  may  be  used  in 
combination  with  roofs  of  other  kinds. 


87 


78 


CARPENTKY 


The  (jamhrel  roof  is  sonievvhat  like  tlie  gable  roof,  and  is 
probably  a  development  of  it;  but  the  gable  is  not  triangular  in 
shape,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  12(].  Ganibrel  roofs  niay  be  seen  on 
many  old  houses,  built  in  Colonial  days,  and  the}^  have  lately  come 


aorain  into  use. 


Fig.  1-20.    Oanibivl  Koof. 


Fig.  127.    Mansard  Roof. 


The  manmrd  roof,  called  by  the  name  of  the  architect  who 
introduced  it,  is  like  the  gable  roof  except  that  it  slopes  very 
steeply  from  each  wall  toward  the  center,  instead  of  from  two 
opposite  walls  only,  and  it  has  a  nearly  flat  "deck"  on  top.  It 
bears  a  close  relation  to  the  so-called  Ji'q)  roof.  It  is  shown  in 
Fig.  127. 

The  hij)  roof  mentioned  above  also  slopes  from  all  four  walls 
toward   the  center,  l)ut  not  so  steeply  as  does  the  mansard  roof. 


Fig.  128.    Hip  Roof. 


Fig.  129.    Hip  Roof  with  Deck. 


It  is  usually  brought  to  a  j)()int  or  a  ridge  at  the  top,  as  in  Fio-. 
12(S,  but  sometimes  it  is  finished  with  a  small  flat  deck,  as  in 
Fig.  129. 

In  Fig.  130  is  shown  a  very  simple  form  of  what  is  known  as 
the  hi p-and -valley  roof.  It  is  a  combination  of  two  simple  pitch 
roofs  which  intersect  each  other  at  rioht  anirles.  In  the  fierure 
both  ridges  are  shown  at  the  same  height,  but  they  ai-e  not  always 
built  in  this  way.  Either  ridge  may  rise  above  the  other,  and  the 
two  roofs  may  have  the  same  pitch,  or  different  pitches. 


88 


CARPENTRY 


79 


If  the  ridge  of  the  secondary  I'oof  rises  above  the  ridge  of  the 
main  roof,  the  end  which  projects  above  the  main  ridge  is  usually 
finished  with  a  small  gable,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1;51.  This  arrange- 
ment does  not  make  a  pleasing  appearance,  however,  and  should 
be  avoided  if  jiossible. 


Fig.  130.    Hip  and  Valley  Roof.  Fig.  131.    Hip  and  Valley  Roof. 

The  Rafters.  In  all  roofs  the  pieces  which  make  up  the  main 
body  of  the  frame  are  the  rafters.  They  are  for  the  roof  what  the 
Joists  are  for  the  floor  and  what  the  studs  are  for  the  wall.  They 
are  inclined  members,  spaced  from  sixteen  to  twenty  inches  apart 
on  centers,  which  rest  at  the  bottom  on  the  plate,  and  are  fastened 
at  the  top  in  various  ways  according  to  the  form  of  the  roof.  The 
plate,  therefore,  forms  the  connecting  link  between  the  wall  and 
the  roof,  and  is  really  a  part  of  both.  Rafters  are  sometimes  made 
as  small  as  two  by  six,  but  this  is  allowable  only  in  the  very 
lightest  work.  The  size  of  rafters  for  common  dwelling  houses  is 
usuallv  two  by  eight.  In  some  cases  it  may  be  found  necessary  to 
use  rafters  as  large  as  two  by  ten  for  heavy  work. 

The  connection  of  the  rafters  to  the  wall  is  the  same  in  all  the 
types  of  roofs  described.     They  are  not  framed  into  the  plate,  but 


Fig.  132.    Rafters  Extended  over  Plate. 


Fig.  133.    Eaves  Formed  with 
Separate  Piece. 


are  simply  spiked  to  it.  Usually  they  extend  out  beyond  the  wall 
so  as  to  form  the  eaves,  as  shown  in  Fig.  132,  and  they  are  then 
cut  over  the  plate  and  allowed  to  continue  beyond.     Sometimes 


89 


80 


CARPENTRY 


the  rafter  itself  is  not  extended  beyond  the  plate,  but  is  cut  off  at 
that  point,  and  a  separate  piece  is  nailed  against  it  to  form  the 
eaves,  as  shown  in  Fig.  133.  This  piece  does  not  always  continue 
in  the  same  line  with  the  rafter,  but  may  make  an  angle  with  it,  as 
shown  in  the  figure,  so  as  to  give  a  break  in  the  roof  line. 

There  are  four  different  kinds  of  rafters  used  in  framing 
roofs,  all  of  which  may  sometimes  be  found  in  a  single  roof,  if  it 
is  of  complicated  design,  while  ordinary  roofs  may  be  framed  with 
only  the  more  simple  forms.  In  Fig.  IB-t  is  shown  the  framing 
plan  of  a  roof  in  which  all  four  kinds  of  rafters  are  to  be  found. 
a  a  a  are  common  rafters  which  extend  clear  up  from  the  plate  to 
the  ridge  and  which  are  not  connected  with  any  of  the  other 
rafters,  h  l>  1>  a.re  Jtrcl-  rafters  which  are  shorter  than  the  common 
rafters  and  which  do  not  extend  from  the  plate  to  the  ridge,  but 


a  aa 


Fig.  134.    Framing  Plan  of  Roof. 

are  connected  at  one  end  to  a  hip  or  vallci)  rafter,  e  c  are  the 
valley  rafters,  ^vhicll  are  needed  at  every  corner  between  the  main 
building  and  an  ell  or  other  projection,  while  the  hip  rafters 
are  found  at  every  outside  corner.  At  the  points  where  the  val- 
ley rafters  are  situated  there  are  troughs  or  valleys  formed  by  the 
roof  surfaces — as  these  pitch  downwards  on  l)oth  sides  toward  the 
valley  rafter — while  at  the  outside  corners,  M'here  the  hip  rafters 
are  found,  the  roof  surfaces  pitch  upward  on  each  side  to  the  hip 
rafter.  This  may  be  seen  by  looking  at  any  hip  and  valley  roof  as 
actuallv  constructed. 


90 


> 

CO 


•a 
o 

o 


g 


I 


0 


o 


0 


O 
O 


0 


4> 


o    o 


o 

73 


CAKPENTRY 


81 


111  pitcli  or  gable  roofs  there  are  no  hip  rafters,  hut  there  may 
be  valley  rafters  and  jack  rafters,  while  common  rafters  are  to  be 
found  in  all  roofs. 

The  Ridge.  In  the  lean-to  roof  the  rafters  rest  at  the  top 
against  the  wall  of  the  building  of  which  the  ell,  or  porch,  is  a 
part;  and  the  framing  of  the  roof  consists  simply  in  setting  them 
up  and  securing  them  in  place  with  spikes  or  nails.  The  pitch 
roof,  however,  is  formed  on  the  principle  that  two  pieces  which 
are  inclined  against  each  other  will  hold  each  other  up,  and  so  the 
rafters  must  rest  against  each  other  at  the  top  in  pairs,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  135.  It  is  customary  to  insert  between  the  rafters,  at  the 
top,  a  piece  of  board  about  one  inch  in  thickness  and  deep  enough 


Fig.  135.    Top  of  Rafters. 


Fig. 


136.    Ridge  Pole  Between  Tops 
of  Rafters. 


to  receive  the  whole  depth  of  the  rafter,  as  shown  at  a  in  Fig.  136. 
This  piece  of  board  is  called  the  Tidge  or  the  ridge  pole  and 
extends  the  whole  length  of  the  roof.  It  serves  to  keep  the  rafters 
from  falling  sideways,  and  keeps  the  roof  frame  in  place  until  the 
roof  boardino-  is  on.  It  is  sometimes  e.xtended  above  the  rafters, 
and  forms  a  center  for  some  form  of  metal  finish  for  the  ridge,  as 
shown  in  Fio-.  137. 

Interior  Supports.  In  small  roofs  which  have  to  cover  only 
narrow  buildings  and  in  which  the  length  of  the  rafters  is  small, 
there  is  no  necessity  for  any  interior  support.  When  the  rafters 
have  been  cut  to  the  correct  length,  set  up  against  the  ridge,  and 
secured  in  place,  the  framing  is  complete.  In  roofs  of  large  span, 
however,  the  rafters  would  sag  in  the  middle  if  they  were  not 
streno-thened  in  some  way,  so  it  is  customary  to  put  a  vertical  sup- 
port under  them.     This  support  may  be  formed  by  placing  a  piece 


81 


82 


CARPENTRY 


of  Btudding  under  each  rafter,  somewhere  between  the  j)late  and 
the  ridge,  and  if  this  is  done  very  much  lighter  rafters  can  be  used 
than  would  otherwise  be  considered  safe.  It  is  claimed  by  some 
that  it  is  cheaper  to  do  this  than  to  use  the  heavy  rafters.  A  more 
common  way  of  supporting  the  long  rafters  is  to  use  fewer  upright 
pieces  and  to  place  a  horizontal  piece  a  on  top  of  them,  running 
the  whole  length  of  the  building  and  supporting  each  rafter. 
This  is  shown  in  Fig.  138.  An  upright  piece  h  should  be  placed 
under  every  sixth  or  seventh  rafter  in  order  to  give  the  necessary 
stiffness  to  the  whole  construction.  For  the  uprights,  pieces  of 
ordinary  studding,  two  by  four  inches  or  two  by  three  inches  in 
size,  may  be  used,     "When  there  is  to  be  a  finished  attic  in  the 


Fig.  137.    Cross  Section 
at  Ridge  Pole. 


Fig.  138.    Support  for  Long  Rafters. 


building  these  upright  studs  may  be  made  to  form  the  side  walls 
of  the  attic  rooms,  and  must  then  be  spaced  sixteen  inches,  or 
thereabouts,  on  centers.  In  this  case  a  piece  of  studding  could  be 
placed  under  each  rafter.     Such  walls  are  called  choarf  walls. 

Another  form  of  interior  support  is  the  collar  heam  or  tie 
heam.  This  is  a  piece  of  timber  which  extends  between  the 
rafters  on  opposite  sides  of  the  roof  and  ties  them  together,  as 
shown  at  a  in  Fig.  139.  It  may  be  a  piece  of  board  about  one 
inch  thick  and  eight  or  ten  inches  wide,  which  is  nailed  onto  the 
side  of  the  rafter  at  each  end.  It  is  placed  as  near  the  center  of 
the  rafter  as  may  be  practicable,  and  in  the  case  where  a  finished 
attic  is  required  it  forms  the  support  for  the  ceiling.  For  this 
reason  it  must  be  at  a  considerable  height  from  the  attic  floor,  and 


98 


CARPENTRY 


83 


cannot   always  be  placed  very  near  the  center  of  the  rafter.     The 
important  point  is  to  see  .that  it  is  well  nailed  at  each  end. 

A  very  interesting  form  of  gable  roof  is  that  in  which  there 
is  a  double  gable  with  a  valley  between,  which  forms  the  roof  of 


Fig.  139.    Tie  Beam  Support  for  Rafters. 


Fig.  140.    Pitch  Roof  with 
Double  Gable. 


the  ell,  the  main  roof  being  a  simple  pitch  roof.  This  is  shown  in 
Fig.  140.  Fig.  141  shows  how  such  a  roof  may  be  framed.  The 
piece  a  is  placed  in  the  wall  and  supported  by  the  stiiddino-  and 
serves  as  a  plate  to  receive  the  ends  of  the  pieces  ^,  which  are  val- 


Fig.  HI.    Framing  for  Double  Gable. 

ley  rafters.  These,  together  with  the  piece  c,  form  the  framing 
for  the  shallow  valley  between  the  two  gables.  The  valley  rafters 
on  the  outside,  marked  d  in  the  figure,  are  similar  to  those  used 


93 


84 


CARPENTRY 


in  tlie  case  of  a  single  gable.  The  pieces  e  e  are  jack  rafters  and 
are  very  short.  This  form  of  roof  is  not  common,  but  in  some 
places  it  gives  a  good  effect. 

Framing  of  Qambrel  Roof,  A  gambrel  roof  is  framed  in 
very  much  the  same  way  as  is  a  pitch  or  a  hi|)  roof.  The  slope  of 
the  roof,  however,  is  broken  at  a  point  about  midway  between  the 
plate  and  the  ridge.  The  part  of  the  roof  above  this  break  makes 
an  angle  with  the  horizontal  plane  of  less  than  forty-five  degrees, 
usually,  while  the  portion  below  the  break  make  an  angle  with  the 
horizontal  plane  greater  than  forty-five  degrees.  This  is  shown  in 
Fig.  126. 

The  lower  slope  may  almost  be  considered  a  part  of  the  wall, 
and  at  the  point  where  the  slope  changes  there  is  a  secondary  plate 

from  which  the  tipper  slope  starts,  as 
shown  at  a  in  P^ig.  1-1:2.  The  second- 
ary plate  may  be  utilized  as  a  support 
for  the  ends  of  the  ceiling  joists  1>^ 
which  should  also  be  securely  spiked 
to  the  rafters,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 
The  rafters  r,  forming  the  upper  slope, 
must  be  cut  over  the  plate  a^  and  firm- 
ly spiked  to  it,  while  at  the  top  they 
rest  against  a  ridge  board  d.  The 
rafters  <?,  forming  the  lower  slope,  are 
cut  out  at  the  top  so  as  to  form  a  seat 
for  the  plate  ^/,  and  must  be  very  securely  fastened  at  the  bottom  to 
the  main  wall  plate  f.  It  is  an  excellent  ])lan  to  have  the  fioor 
joists  (J  spiked  to  the  lower  rafters,  so  as  to  act  like  tie  beams 
across  the  building  and  to  counteract  the  outward  thrust  of  the 
rafters.  Sometimes  these  fioor  Joists  are  dropped  below  the  wall 
plate  /',  and  are  supported  on  a  ledger-board  notched  into  the  wall 
studding  v.  This  construction  is  not  so  good  as  that  shown  in  the 
figure,  because  the  joist  is  not  so  effective  as  a  tie  across  the  build- 
ing. If  it  is  employed,  the  floor  joists  must  be  securely  nailed  to 
the  wall  studding  v,  and  they  must  not  in  any  case  be  drop])ed 
more  than  two  or  three  feet  below  the  plate.  The  plate  must  always 
be  firmly  nailed  to  each  stud  to  prevent  it  from  being  forced  out- 
ward as  it  receives  the  thrust  from  the  rafters  e. 


Fig.  112.    Friimiuf:  of  (Jambrol 
Koof. 


94 


CARPEXTHl 


85 


Pig.  i4H.    Laying  out 
Shape  of  Roof. 


A  good  rule  for  detenninintj;  the  point  at  wliicli  to  place  the 
secondary  plate  (f,  and  for  determining  the  general  shape  of  the 
roof,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  148.  Let  the  points  a  and  h  represent 
the  main  plates  on  each  side  of  the  building.  Draw  a  line  a  1> 
between  them  and  bisect  this  line  at  r.     "With  o  as  a  center  and  c  a 

as  a  radius  describe  the  semicircle  a  d  e  fh. 
At  any  distance  g  above  a  h  draw  a  line  d  f 
parallel  to  a  1>,  cutting  the  semicircle  at  the 
points  d  and  f.  Also  bisect  the  arc  at  e. 
Then  by  joining  the  points  a  d  e  y  and  h  by 
straight  lines  as  shown,  we  will  have  the  out- 
line of  a  gambrel  roof.  The  proportions  of  the 
roof  may  be  varied  by  varying  the  distance  g. 

Gambrel  roofs  are  not  very  strong  unless  they  are  stiffened  by 
cross  partitions  in  the  attic  stories,  and  these  should  be  provided 
whenever  it  is  possible.  Ko  gambrel  roof,  unless  it  is  well 
braced,  should  be  used  on  a  building  which  is  exposed  to  high 
winds,  or  which  is  likely  to  receive  a  heavy  weight  of  snow. 

Framing  of  Mansard  Roof.  A  mansard  roof  is  framed  in 
very  much  the  same  way  as  is  a  gambrel 
roof,  as  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  144,  Kesting 
on  the  main  wall  plate  a  we  have  a  piece  h 
which  is  inclined  sliohtly  inward,  and  which 
supports  at  its  upper  end  a  secondary  plate  e. 
On  the  plate  c  rests  the  outer  end  of  the 
deck  rafter  d  which  is  nearly  horizontal. 
The  piece  h  is  a  piece  of  studding,  t^vo  by 
four  inches  to  four  by  six  inches  in  size, 
depending  upon  the  size  of  the  roof.  It 
supports  the  whole  weight  from  the  rafters, 
carrying  it  to  the  main  wall  plate  and 
thence  into  the  walls  of  the  building.  This 
member  should  always  be  straight,  and  the 
curved  shape  which  is  usual  on  mansard 
roofs  is  obtained  by  the  use  of  the  furring  piece  <\  This  piece  is 
nailed  to  the  upright  member  b  at  the  top,  and  at  the  bottom  it 
is  secured  to  the  lool'oiit  f  Vih.\ch.  also  forms  a  support  for  the  pro- 
jecting cornice.     The  floor  joist  g  is  supported  on  a  ledger-board 


Fig.  144.    Framing  of  Man- 
sard Roof. 


95 


S6 


CARPENTRY 


//,  or  it  may  rest  directly  on  the  plate  a.  The  piece  of  studding i 
is  merely  a  furring  stud  to  form  the  wall  of  the  attic  room.  It 
may  be  omitted  entirely  if  desired,  or  if  the  attics  are  to  be  unfin- 
ished. The  ceiling  joist  h  may  be  supported  on  a  ledger-board  as 
shown,  or  may  be  simply  spiked  to  the  studding  i  or  to  the  upright  J. 
The  studding  i  may  rest  directly  on  the  floor  joists  (j  with  a  sole 
piece  ^  at  the  bottom,  as  shown.  The  plate  c  should  be  of  a  good 
size,  at  least  four  by  six  inches,  and  should  not  be  placed  more  than 
two  or  three  feet  above  the  ceiling  joists  h.  The  ceiling  joists  act 
as  ties  across  the  building  and  prevent  the  plates  e  from  spreading 
apart,  as  they  receive  the  thrust  from  the  rafters  d.  For  this  reason 
it  is  better  to  have  the  ceiling  joist  h  fastened  to  the  upright  h 

rather  than  to  the  furrincr  stud  %. 

o 

Dormer  Windows.  In  Fisfs.  145  and  146  are  shown  what 
are  known  as  dormer  windows,  this  name  being  applied  to  all 
windows  in  the  roofs  of  buildings,  w^hatever  may  be  their  size  or 


Fig.  145.    Dormer  Window. 


Fig.  UG.    Donuor  Window. 


shape.  The  figures  show  two  different  kinds  of  dormers  which 
are  in  general  use,  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  145  resting  entirely  on 
the  roof,  while  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  14(3  is  merely'  a  continuation 
of  the  wall  of  the  building  above  the  line  of  the  eaves.  The 
second  type  is  often  seen  on  low  buildings,  only  one  story  in 
height,  while  the  other  kind  is  employed  on  larger  structures. 

In  order  to  construct  a  dormer  M'indow  an  opening  must  be 
made  in  the  roof  surface,  and  the  window  must  be  built  up  over 
the  opening.  Headers  are  framed  in  between  two  of  the  rafteus 
as  shown  at  a  and  h  in  Fig.  147,  and  thus  a  rectangular  openmg 
is  formed  in  the  roof  frame.  The  rafters  c  and  d^  which  form  the 
sides  of  the  opening,  are  called  trimmers  and  should  be  much 
stronger  than  the  common    rafters.      Usually  the  trijnmers  are 


U6 


CAKPEXTRY 


87 


made  by  doubling  the  ordinary  rafters.     The  headers  receive  the 
ends  of  the  rafters  which  are  cut  by  the  opening,  and  must  be  large 
enough  to  carrj-  the  weight  which  comes   from  them  beside  sup- 
porting the  walls  of  the  dormer. 
Timbers  four  by  eight  inches  to 
six  by  ten.  inches,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  dormer,  are  usually 
large  enough  for  the  headers  and 
often  smaller  timbers  may  be 
safely  used. 

The  headers  are  shown  in 
section  at  a  and  h  in  Fig.  148, 
and  it  will  be  noticed  that  they 
are  not  put  in  in  exactly  the 
same  way.     The  piece  at  the  top 

a  is  so  placed  that  its  longer  dimension  is  at  right  angles  to  the 
plane  of  the  roof,  while  the  piece  at  the  bottom  h  has  its  longer 
dimension  vertical.  In  the  case  shown  in  Fio-.  146,  where  the  front 
wall  of  the  dormer  is  merely  an  extension  of  the  main  wall  of  the 


Fig.  U7.    Headers  for  Dormer  Windows. 


Fig.  148.    Longitudinal  Sections  Through  Dormer  Windows. 

building,  there  is  no  need  of  the  lower  header  J,  the  main  wall 
plate  taking  its  place  and  supporting  the  studding  for  the  front 
wall  of  the  dormer,  as  shown  at  the  ritfht  hand  side  of  Fio-.  14S. 

Fio;.   148  shows  sections  taken  throuo-h  two  dormers  of  tho 
types  mentioned  above,  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  main  rafters 


07 


88  CARPENTKY 


and  at  right  angles  to  the  main  wall  plate  of  the  building.  At 
the  left  is  a  section  taken  through  the  type  of  dormer  shown  in 
Fig.  145,  while  at  the  right  a  section  of  the  other  type  is  shown. 
The  studs  c  c,  which  form  the  side  walls  of  the  dormer,  are  notched 
over  the  trimmer  rafters  and  roof  boarding  about  one  inch,  and 
allowed  to  continue  downward  to  the  attic  floor.  This  is  shown  at 
J).  At  <?  is  a  section  of  the  trimmer  rafter, /is  the  wall  stud,  <i  is 
the  attic  floor  boarding,  and  h  is  a  section  of  one  of  the  attic  floor 
joists.  The  studs  e  are  in  line  with  the  studs  forming  the  side 
walls  of  the  attic  room,  so  the  studs  i  cannot  be  carried  down  to 
the  attic  floor.  They  are  stopped,  at  the  bottom,  against  a  two  by 
three-inch  strip  Ic  which  is  nailed  to  the  side  of  the  trimmer  rafter. 
At  I  is  the  ridge  board,  and  m  m  m  are  the  short  rafters  which 
form  the  pitch  roof  of  the  dormer.  They  may  be  very  light,  as 
they  are  short  and  carry  little  weight.  They  rest,  at  the  foot,  on 
a  plate  o,  and  at  the  top  bear  against  the  ridge  board  /.  In  the 
dormer  shown  on  the  right  of  the  figure  the  rafters^)  are  in  planes 
parallel  to  the  main  rafters,  and  a  furring  piece  s  may  be  nailed  to 
each  of  them  so  as  to  give  the  dormer  roof  any  desired  curve. 

Beside  the  o])enings  in  the  roof  frame  for  dormer  windows 
there  must  be  other  openings  for  chinineys  and  skylights.  These 
are  formed  in  the  sauie  way  as  explained  for  the  dormer  openings, 
\vith  headers  and  trimmer  rafters.  A  plan  of  such  an  opening  is 
fahown  at  e  in  the  roof  framing  plan  in  Fig.  134. 

RAFTER  BEVELS. 

At  the  points" where  the  rafters  intersect  each  other  the  ends 
must  ])e  cut  on  a  bevel  so  that  they  will  fit  against  one  another 
accurately.  Tlie  cutting  of  these  bevels  is  the  most  difiicult  part 
of  the  roof  framing.  There  is  a  different  kind  of  bevel  for  each 
of  the  four  kinds  of  rafters,  so  they  will  be  considered  sej^arately. 

Common  Rafters.  The  common  rafters  are  the  most  simple 
of  all,  and  the  bevels  for  them  are  easily  cut  when  the  pitch  of  the 
roof  in  which  they  are  to  be  employed  is  known.  Fig.  149  shows 
a  plan  and  elevation  of  one  common  rafter  c,  with  the  ridge  a  at 
one  end  and  the  plate  l  at  the  other.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  cuts 
may  be  made  square  across  the  piece  since  it  is  perpendicular  to 
the  ])late  h  and  to  the  ridge  board  a.      There  are  two  cuts  to  be 


98 


CAKPENTRY 


89 


made  ;  one  at  the  top,  where  the  rafter  comes  against  the  rido-e 
board  <?,  known  as  the  2)hi}nh  cut;  one  at  the  foot,  where  the  rafter 
rests  on  the  plate  5,  known  as  the  foot  cut. 

The  upper  edges  of  the  rafters  in  any  roof  surface  must  all  lie 
in  the  same  plane  in  order  that  the  surface  may  be  smooth  and 
even  throughout.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  work  from  the  upper 
surfaces  of  the  rafters  in  laying  out  the  bevels,  so  that  any  uneven- 
ness  which  may  result  from  a  variation  in  the  depth  of  the  rafters 
will  appear  on  the  under  side  where  it  may  be  corrected  by  fur- 
ring. We  must  start  with  the  points/,  which  is  the  point  in  which 
the  line  of  the  upper  edge  of  the  rafter  intersects  the  line  of  the 
outside  face  of  the  wall  plate.  Then  d  e, 
which  is  the  distance  from  the  outside  face 
of  the  wall  plate  to  the  face  of  the  ridge 
board,  is  the  7'iiri  of  the  rafter,  and  efis, 
the  rise  of  the  rafter.  The  relation  be- 
tween this  rise  and  run  is  called  i\iQ  2)itch 
of  the  roof  surface,  and  it  determines  the 
bevels,  which  may  be  easily  marked  off  on 
the  piece  with  the  aid  of  the  steel  square. 

To  obtain  the  length  of  the  rafter  we 
must  find  the  distance  d  e.  The  pitch  of 
the  roof  surface  will  tell  us  the  number 
of  inches  the  rafter  rises  for  each  foot  of 
run,  and  from  this  we  may  find  the  dis- 
tance e  f.  The  square  root  of  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  dis- 
tances d  6  and  e  ^Z"  will  be  the  distance  d  /",  which  is  the  length  of 
the  rafter  between"  cuts. 

Fi£f.  150  shows  how  the  bevels  for  a  common  rafter  can  be 
cut  very  easily  with  the  aid  of  the  steel  square.  Suppose  that  we 
start  with  the  rough  piece  a  h  e  e  before  it  has  been  cut  at  all. 
Let  us  choose  some  point,  as  the  point  d,  on  the  edge  of  the  piece 
near  one  end,  which  we  will  take  as  the  point  in  which  the  upper 
edcre  of  the  rafter"is  to  intersect  the  line  of  the  outside  face  of  the 
wall  plate.  This  point  corresponds  to  the  point  d  in  Fig.  149.  Let 
us  suppose  that  the  pitch  of  the  roof  surface  is  to  be  eight  inches 
to  the  foot.  Then  we  will  apply  the  square  to  the  piece,  as  shown 
in   tlie  figure  by  the  full    lines,  with  the  eight-inch   mark  on  the 


Fig.  U9.    Plan  and  Elevation 
of  Rafter. 


90 


CARPENTRY 


tongue  at  the  point  d  and  with  the  twelv^e-inch  mark  on  the  blade 
also  on  this  same  edge  of  the  rafter.  The  line  d  s  h  along;  the 
tongue  of  the  square  is  the  line  of  the  outside  face  of  the  wall 
plate,  and  if  the  rafter  is  not  to  project  beyond  the  plate  it  should 
be  cut  on  this  line.  If  the  rafter  is  to  project  beyond  the  plate  so 
as  to  form  eaves,  we  must  measure  off  the  required  distance  h  I  and 
draw  the  line  I  m  parallel  to  d  s  k,  cutting  the  piece  on  this  line. 


d     m 


Fig.  150.    Cutting  Bevel  at  Top  of  Rafter. 


Now  to  cut  the  bevel  at  the  top  of  the  rafter.  Let  us  suppose 
that  the  run,  the  distance  d  e  in  Fig.  150,  is  ten  feet  and  three 
inches.  We  will  move  the  square  along  the  edge  of  the  rafter  as 
indicated  by  the  dotted  lines  eleven  times,  starting  with  the  first 
position,  shown  by  the  full  lines.  When  the  square  is  in  the 
eleventh  position  mark  off  three  inches,  m  to  o,  on  the  blade,  and 
slide  the  square  along  to  the  twelfth  position.  Then  the  line  j'^  y 
along  the  tongue  of  the  scpiare  will  be  the  line  of  the  face  of  the 
ridge  board,  and  the  piece  should  be  cut  ou  this  line, 


109 


CARPEXTRY  91 


A  little  study  of  the  figure  will  suffice  to  reveal  to  anyone  the 
reason  for  this  method  of  procedure.  Every  time  the  square  is 
moved  into  a  new  position  it  has  advanced  twelve  inches  or  one 
foot  along  the  run  of  the  rafter,  since  the  distance  i  f  is  twelve 
inches  and  is  measured  horizontally.      After  the  square  has  been 

moved   ten  times  it  has  advanced  ten  feet  alono-'  the  run  of  the 

o 

rafter,  and  there  is  then  left  the  three  inches  of  the  run  which  is 
accordingly  measured  off  as  explained  above.  This  gires  the  posi- 
tion of  the  top  bevel.  It  should  be  noticed  that  for  a  run  of  ten 
feet  the  square  must  be  moved  along  ten  times  ;  for  a  run  of  eio-ht 
feet,  eight  times;  and  so  on.  The  run  of  the  rafter  maybe  easily 
obtained  by  subtracting  one-half  the  thickness  of  the  ridge  board 
from  one-half  of  the  total  span  of  the  roof  from  outside  to  outside 
of  wall  plates.  Sometimes  the  run  is  tajcen  as  exactly  one -half 
the  span  of  the  roof,  and  then  the  rafter  is  cut  hack  at  the  top  by 
an  amount  equal  to  one-half  the  thickness  of  the  ridge  board. 
Another  way  to  obtain  the  exact  run  of  the  rafter,  from  the  out- 
side face  of  the  wall  plate  to  the  face  of  the  ridge  board,  is  to  sub- 
tract the  total  thickness  of  the  ridge  board  from  the  total  span  and 
divide  the  result  by  two. 

The  rafter  must  also  be  cut  along  the  line  *  A  at  right  angles 
to  the  line  of  the  outside  face  of  the  plate,  so  as  to  rest  on  the 
plate,  which  is  shown  in  the  figure  as  ^"  <§  A  f.  If  it  projects 
beyond  the  walls  of  the  building  to  form  the  eaves,  it  must  be  cut 
on  the  line  h  s  as  well,  leaving  the  notch  I:  s  h  into  whicb  the 
plate  fits.  The  distance  d  s  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  conditions 
of  each  case,  but  must  be  made  the  same  for  all  the  rafters  in  any 
one  roof  surface. 

The  figure  shows  the  rafter  in  the  position  which  it  would 
occupy  in  a  building,  the  plate  and  a  part  of  the  wall  studding 
being  indicated. . 

Valley  Rafters.  TTe  will  next  consider  the  valley  rafters,  and 
the  bevels  which  must  be  cut  for  them.  We  have  seen  that  in  the 
case  of  the  common  rafters  the  bevels  were  determined  by  the 
pitch  of  the  rafter,  and  since  the  same  thing  holds  true  for  the 
valley  rafters  it  is  first  of  all  necessary  to  be  able  to  find  the  pitch 
of  these  members.  By  looking  at  the  rafter  c,  in  the  plan  in  Fig. 
134,  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is  a  part  of  two  different  roof  surfaces, 


XOl 


92 


CARPENTRY 


and  that  it  forms  a  connecting  link  between  tlieni.  Its  ])itcli, 
however,  is  different  from  the  pitch  of  either  of  these  roof  surfaces. 
To  show  how  this  pitch  may  be  found  let  us  consider  a  special 
case.  Suppose  that  we  have  a  roof  B,  with  a  pitch  of  twelve  inches 
to  the  foot  -which  is  intersected  by  another  smaller  roof  A  with  a 
pitch  of  eicrht  inches  to  the  foot,  as  shown  in  outline  in  Fig.  151. 
In  Fig.  152,  which  is  a  plan  of  a  part  of  the  same  roof,  let  <i  h  be 
the  ridcre  of  the  larofer  roof  and  let  the  dotted  line  c  d  be  the  ridtre 
of  the  smaller  roof.  This  ridge  c  d  intersects  the  surface  of  the 
larger  roof  13  at  some  point,  as  //  in  Figs.  151  and  152,  the  location 

of  whicji  on  the  plan  is  as  yet  un- 
known. Let  the  line  a  efg  h  i 
j  h  represent  the  line  of  the  out- 
side face  of  the  plate  and  let  the 
dotted  line  just  inside  of  this 
represent  the  inside  face  of  the 
plate.  The  iigurealso  shows  an 
elevation  of  a  common  rafter  in 
each  roof  and  of  the  valley  rafter, 
with  the  plate  and  a  portion  of 


Fig.  151.    Intersecting  Roofs  of  Different 
Pitch. 


the  wall  studdincr  at  Z',  and  the 
The  ridcje  boards 


rafters  at  I 
are  shown  at  ///.  The  points  g' 
f  and  e'  sliow  Mhere  the  line  of  the  upper  surfaces  of  the  rafters 
in  each  roof  intersect  the  line  of  the  outside  face  of  the  plate,  and 
these  points  should  all  be  at  the  same  distance  above  the  top  of  the 
plate,  so  that  a  line  joining  them  would  be  horizontal.  This  may 
be  accomplished  mIicu  the  rafters  are  cut  l)y  making  the  distance 
g'  n  or  e'  o  the  same  for  all  of  the  rafters.  It  is  evident  also  that 
the  line  of  each  ridge,  c  d  or  a  h,  must  be  horizontal,  so  that 
every  point  in  either  ridge  is  at  the  same  level,  or  at  the  same  dis- 
tance above  the  top  of  the  plate,  as  is  every  other  point  in  the  same 
ridge  line.  It  may  happen,  in  certain  cases,  that  both  ridge  lines 
will  be  at  the  same  elevation,  but  usually  one  ridge  will  be  higher 
than  the  other,  so  that  the  roofs  will  intersect  as  shown  in  Fig.  151. 
We  must  now  find  the  position  and  the  pitch  of  the  line  in 
which  the  two  roof  surfaces  A  and  B  intersect.  The  point  ^/must 
be  one  point  in  this  line,  and  in  order  to  determine  the  position  of 


102 


CARPENTRY 


93 


the  line  we  must  find  one  other  point  in  it.  All  lines  in  either 
roof  surface  which  are  parallel  to  the  ridge  lines,  as  <£  r  and  r'  s\ 
must  be  horizontal.  Suppose  that  we  draw  the  line //'  /■'  in  the  roof 
surface  A,  making  the  distance  <j  q  or  g'  t  just  one  foot.  Then 
since  this  roof  surface  A  has  a  pitch  of  eight  inches  to  the  foot, 
the  point  </  must  be  eight  inches  higher  than  the  points  (/  and  /, 
or  the  distance  t  q'  must  be  eight  inches.  This  line  q'  r  is  shown 
also  in  Ficr.  1.51.      It  will  be  seen   that  it  intersects  the  roof  sur- 


Fig.  152.    Plan  of  Intersecting  Roofs. 

face  B  at  the  point  /•'  and  since  it  is  a  horizontal  line,  this  point  / 
must  be  eight  inches  above  the  point  c,  which  is  on  a  level  with 
the  points  <j  and  /'. 

Now  let  us  select  the  point  6'  or  s  in  the  roof  surface  .13  and 
let  us  suppose  that  it  is  also  just  eight  inches  above  e  f  (j.  Since 
the  pitch  of  the  roof  surface  B  is  not  eight  inches  to  the  foot  like 
the  surface  A,  but  is  twelve  inches  to  the  foot,  the  distance  e  s  or 
o  V  will  not  1)0  twelve  inches  but  will  be  j%  of  12  inches,  or  eight 
inches.  If  then  we  draw  the  line  s  r,  in  the  roof  surface  B,  mak- 
ing the  distance  e  s  or  e'  v  eight  inches,  it  will  be  at  the  same 
level  as  the  line  q'  r  in  the  roof  surface  A  and  the  point  / ■'  must 
lie  in  both  lines,  must  be  a  point  in  the  line  of  intersection  of  the 


103 


94  CARPENTRY 


two  roof  surfaces,  and  must  be  eight  inches  abov^e  the  point  f. 
The  distance  r'  x,  then,  will  be  eight  inches.  A  line  drawn  through 
the  points  y  and  ^' will  give  the  position  of  the  valley  rafter  on 
the  plan,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  it  strikes  the  ridge  c  d  at  the 
point  y.  Since  y  1/  lies  on  the  roof  surface  B,  the  point  y  must 
be  the  point  in  which  the  ridge  g  d  cuts  the  roof  surface  B,  and 
the  valley  rafter  i  y  may  be  drawn  at  once  in  plan. 

We  have  found  that  the  distance  r  z  is  eight  inches  and  we 
started  with  the  assumption  that  the  distance  f  z  was  twelve 
inches,  so  we  see  that  the  distancey  r  ovf  x  is  equal  to  the  square 
root  of  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  twelve  inches  and  eight  inches 
which  is  very  nearly  fourteen  and  one-half  inches.  The  distance 
/  a;,  which  is  the  rise  of  the  valley  for  the  run  of  fourteen  and 
one-half  inches  we  have  found  to  be  eight  inches,  so  we  know  that 
the  pitch  of  the  valley  is  eight  inches  in  fourteen  and  one-half 
inches,  or  six  and  five-eighths  inches  in  twelve  inches. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  since  the  distance  y  s  is  twelve  inches 
and  the  distance  r  z  is,  in  this  case,  eight  inches,  the  valley  pitches 
horizontally  toward  the  ridge  c  y  with  a  pitch  of  eight  inches  to 
the  foot.  In  the  same  way,  since  y  v  is  eight  inches,  and  v  r  is 
twelve  inches,  it  may  be  seen  that  the  valley  pitches  horizontally 
toward  the  ridge  a  h  with  a  pitch  of  twelve  inches  in  eight  inches, 
or  eighteen  inches  to  the  foot. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  distance  y  v'  on  the  valley  rafter 
is  the  length  on  that  rafter  which  corresponds  to  a  run  of  f  z,  or 
one  foot,  in  the  direction  of  the  roof  surface  A.  Also  (y  r'Y  is 
equal  to  (/•'  x)  ^  plus  {/'  x) ".  Buty  x  is  the  same  as  f  r  in  the 
plan  so  that  {/'  x)"  is  equal  to  {fzy  plus  (?•  z)'.  Then  (y  x')- 
must  be  equal  to  {fz)'  plus  (?'  zy  plus  (/  x)  ^  In  this  particular 
case.,  we  know  that  f  z  is  twelve  inches,  r  z  eight  inches,  and  ;■'  x 
eight  inches;  so  that  the  length  on  the  valley  rafter  correspfbnding 
to  a  run  of  one  foot  toward  the  ridge  o  y  is  equal  to  the  square 
root  of  12^  +  8^-f  8^  Multiplying  this  result  by  the  number  of 
feet  and  fractions  of  a  foot  in  the  half  span  of  the  roof  A  will  give 
us  the  total  length  of  the  valley  rafter.  The  half  span  of  the  roof 
A  is  shown  on  the  plan  as  the  distance  c  g;  f  z  may  always  be 
taken  as  twelve  inches,  and  r'  x  will  always  be  given  by  the  pitch 
of  the  roof  surface  A,  being  the  rise  of  this  surface  per  foot  of 


104 


CARPENTRY 


95 


run.  We  have  only  to  lind,  then,  the  distance  r  z,  which  is  the 
run  of  tlie  roof  surface  B,  giving  the  same  rise  as  occurs  in  the 
roof  A  for  a  run  of  one  foot.  As  we  have  seen  r  z  is  easily  deter- 
mined from  the  pitch  of  the  roof  surface  B.  and  we  can  find  the 
length  of  the  valley  rafter. 

Fig.  153  shows  the  plan  of  a  roof  in  which  there  are  a  number 
of  different  kinds  of  valley  rafters,  and  the  same  roof  is  shown  in 
outline  in  Fig.  154:.  There  is  a  main  roof  A,  a  small  gable  B,  not 
so  high  as  the  main  roof,  and  a  larger  gable  C,  the  ridge  of  which 
is  on  the  same  level  with  the  main  ridge.  The  plan  in  Fig.  153 
shows  the  method  of  framing  the  roof  when  a  small  gable  inter- 
sects the  main  roof  surface.     One  of  the  valley  rafters  ah  '\s,  car- 


Pig.  153.    Plan  of  Roof  with  Different 
Valley  Rafters. 


Fig.  154.    Outline  of  Roof  with 
Different  Valley  Rafters. 


ried  clear  up  to  the  main  ridge  and  bears  against  it,  while  the 
other  valley,  g  d,  bears  against  a  h.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  lower 
part  of  the  rafter  a  h  from  h  to  d  lies  in  both  the  roof  surfaces  A 
and  B,  but  that  the  portion  from  d  to  a  lies  entirely  in  the  surface 
A.  This  plan  shows  all  the  different  bevels  that  will  have  to  be 
cut  on  valley  rafters.  At  the  top  of  rafter  a  b,  where  it  meets  the 
ridge  i  It,  is  a  single  bevel  which  is  determined  by  the  pitch  or 
inclination  of  the  rafter  toward  this  ridge.  At  the  top  of  the  rafter 
c  d  is  a  single  bevel  which  is  determined  by  the  angle  between  c  d 
and  a  h.  It  will  be  noticed  that  this  angle  is  just  double  the  angle 
between  c  d  and  the  ridge  d  g,  so  that  it,  too,  is  determined  by  the 
inclination  of  c  d  toward  this  ridge.  At  the  top  of  the  rafter  o  e 
there  are  two  bevels;  one  determined  by  the  pitch  of  the  rafter 


109 


96 


CARPENTRY 


toward  the  ridge  o  l\  and  the  other  by  tlie  })itch  of  o  e  toward  the 
rid(re  o  h.  At  the  toi)  of  the  rafter  o  f  are  two  l)evels  similar  to 
those  at  the  top  of  o  e. 

We  M'ill  now  consider  liow  l)evels  may  be  cut  on  the  pieces 
with  the  aid  of  the  steel  square.  The  cut  at  the  foot  of  the  rafter 
is  simple,  and  is  made  in  the  same  way  as  for  a  common  rafter,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  150.  The  distance  d  s  must  be  the  same  for  every 
one  of  the  rafters,  whether  they  are  valley  rafters,  common  rafters, 
hip  rafters,  or  jack  rafters,  and  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  circum- 
stances. The  notch  /■  s  li  fits  over  the  plate  and  tlie  point  .<••  is  at 
the  upper  outside  corner  of  the  plate. 

We  have  seen  that  the  length  of  the  valley  rafter  may  be 
obtained  directly  from  the  half  span  of  one  of  the  roof  surfaces  in 
which  it  lies,  and  this  is  shown  in  Fig.  155,  which  gives  in  iso- 
metric drawing  the  lines'^  I,  I  iii,  and  h  'in  in 
Fig.  153.  The  distance  h  I  may  be  taken  as 
just  one  foot  of  the  half  span  of  the  roof  A; 
the  distance  m  rii  is  the  amount  which  the 
roof  surface  A  rises  in  this  run  of  one  foot, 
and  the  distance  h  in'  is  the  actual  distance 
fiom  h  to  7>i  measured  aloncr  the  line  of  inter- 
section  of  the  two  roof  surfaces.  The  point 
b  corresponds  to  the  point /"  in  Fig.  152,  and 
a  portion  of  the  plate  is  shown  at  c. 

Referring  to  the  plan  in  Fig.  153,  we 
see  that  the  line  /  vi  is  parallel  to  the  ridge 
i  ]i.  so  that  the  angle  /  in  h  determines  the 
])evel  at  the  top  of  the  rafter  <i  h  at  <(.  In 
Kicr.  155,  I  ill'  h  is  the  actual  bevel  and  /  'in  h 
shows  the  bevel  as  it  a])pears  on  the  plan.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  the  angle  /  /;/'  h  is  much 
more  acute  than  the  angle  I  in  h  on  account  of  the  rise  of  the  valley. 
Note  also  that  the  angle  1>  1  in'  is  a  right  angle,  so  that  the  square 
of  h  III  is  equal  to  the  square  of  h  1  plus  the  square  of  I  'in',  and  that 
the  square  of  /  ///'  is  equal  to  the  square  of  /  in  ])lus  the  square 
of  m  m' .  Kemembering  that  l>  1  represents  just  one  foot  of  the 
span  of  the  roof  A,  that  'in  in'  is  the  rise  of  the  roof  surface  A  per 


Fig.  155.    ralc\il;ttinp: 

Length  of  V;illcy 

"  Kafters. 


106 


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FIRST  AND  SECOND  STORY  PLANS  OF  HOUSE  FOR 

MR.  C.  M.  THOMPSON,  CAMBRIDGE,  MASS. 

Cram,  Goodhue  &  Ferguson,  Architects,  Boston  and  New  York. 


\ 


CARPENTRY  97 


foot  of  ran,  and  that  I  rti  is  the  run  of  the  roof  surface  B  which 
will  give  this  same  rise,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  lenath  h  m'  may- 
be easily  obtained.  By  using  the  steel  square  we  may  avoid  squar- 
ing all  of  these  quantities. 

In  Fig.  156,  let  us  suppose  that  we  have  a  piece  of  timber 
from  which  we  wish  to  cut  the  valley  rafter.  Suppose  that  we  have 
selected  the  point  mJ  as  the  starting  point,  corresponding  to  the 
pointy'  in  Fig.  152,  and  that  we  have  made  the  foot  cut  as  shown, 
and  as  explained  above  for  the  common  rafters.  We  now  wish  to 
get  theJength  of  the  rafter  so  that  we  can  make  the  plumb  cut  or 
down  b&vel  at  the  top  of  the  piece.  If  we  place  the  square  along 
the  edge  of  the  piece  as  shown  by  the  light  full  lines  M^ith  the  dis- 
tance Hi  111  on  the  tongue  and  the  distance  I  //i  on  the  blade,  we 


?</ 


0  f 
Fig.  156.    Framing  Valley  Rafter. 

can  at  once  lay  off  the  distance  I  1)%'  by  marking  the  points  m  and  I 
on  the  wood. 

Now  let  us  place  the  square  in  the  position  shown  by  the 
heavier  full  lines,  so  that  the  heel  will  come  at  the  point  I  and  so 
that  the  edge  of  the  tongue  will  pass  through  the  point  m' .  We 
have  now  the  distance  I  7n'  laid  off  along  the  tongue  of  the  square. 
Keeping  the  point  m'  always  in  the  same  position,  so  that  we 
always  have  the  distance  I  m  on  the  tongue  of  the  square,  let  us 
revolve  the  square  about  the  point  iii  ^  as  shown  by  the  dotted 
lines,  until  the  twelve-inch  mark  on  the  blade  coincides  with  the 
edo;e  of  the  rafter  at  h.  We  then  have  the  distance  1)  I.  or  one 
foot,  on  the  blade,  I  in  on  the  tongue,  and  h  in'  alongr  the  edge  of 
the  rafter.  The  distance  h  in'  may  be  laid  off  as  many  times  as 
there  are  feet  and  fractions  of  a  foot  in  the  half  span  of  the  roof, 
giving  the  point  dj  then  d  f  is  the  plumb  cut  at  the  top  of  the 
rafter  parallel  to  the  foot  cut,  and  g  o  shows  where  we  must  cut 
back  to  allow  for  the  thickness  of  the  ridge  board. 


I 


^ 


107 


98 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  157  shows  how  we  may  cut  the  ])evel  shown  at  a  in  T.^j 

.roof  plan  in  Fig.  153.     The  actual  bevel  at  this  point  is  shown  in 

Fig.  155  by  the  angle  h  m   I.     Let  h  m  I  be  the  center  line  of  the 

top  edge  of  the  rafter.     The  point  I  has  been  found  as  explained 

above  and  corresponds  to  the  point  d  in  Fig.  15G.     It  is  the  point 

in  which  the  center  line  of  the  valley 
intersects  the  center  line  of  the  ridge. 
First  place  the  square  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines  with  the  distances  on  the 


Fig.  l")?.    Cutting  Bevel. 


blade  and  tongue  as  shown.     A  iriark 


may  be  made  at  m'  which  gives  the 
distance  m,'  I  and  the  square  may  be  applied  again,  with  this  dis- 
tance VI  I  on  the  blade  and  I  m',  equal  to  just  twelve  inches,  oh 
the  tongue.  The  blade  then  gives  the  bevel.  The  rafter  must  be 
cut  buck,  to  allow  for  half  the  thickness  of  the  ridge. 

For  the  cut  at  the  point  d  in  Fig.  153  where  the  valley  c  d 
comes  against  the  valley  «  i,  we  apply  the  square  in  the  same  way, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  15S,  using  different  values  for  the  distances  I  ni 
and  111  lit' .  The  angle  b  I  lit  must  then  be  doubled,  as  shown,  and 
the  line  <i 2>  gives  the  cut. 


w'i: 


Fig.  158.    Cutting  Valley  Rafters. 


.  Fig.  159.    Cutting  Double  Bevel. 


The  double  bevel  at  the  point  o  in  Fig,  153  is  obtained,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  159,  by  applying  the  square  on  both  sides  of  the 
center  line  of  the  top  edge  of  the  rafter,  using  different  values  for 
111  'III  and  VI  I,  according  to  the  pitch  of  the  roof  surfaces.  This 
gives  the  two  cuts  along  the  blade  of  the  s(|iiare,  in  its  two  linal 
positions,  shown  by  the  full  lines. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  making  all  of  these  cuts  for  valley 
rafters,  there  are  two  distances,  vi  vt  and  in  /,  which  are  used  as 
starting  points,  and  by  which  the  position  of  the  S(|uare  on  the 
piece  is  determined,     vi  vi,  as  has  already  been  explained,  is  the 


108 


CARPENTRY 


99 


("I'^e  of  one  of  the  two  inteiv  ^etiiik  roof  surfaces,  corresponding  to 
a  run  of  one  foot,  -while  ni  I  is'  tiie  run  of  the  other  roof  surface 
which  corresponds  to  a  rise  of  m  in  in  this  roof.  These  distances 
are  easily  determined  from  the  pitch  of  the  two  intersecting  roof 
surfaces,  which  is  always  known,  and  from  them  any  bevel  on  any 
Valley  rafter  can  be  found,  as  well  as  the  run,  or  Riuit^  of  the  valley 
rafter,  its  rise,  its  length,  etc. 

Hip  Rafters.  Fig.  160  shows  the  plan  of  a  roof  in  which 
there  are  some  hip  rafters.  Ki  one  end  we  have  a  square  hip  A, 
and  at  the  opposite  end  we  have  a  skew  hip  B.  The  hip  rafters 
are  shown  at  a  h^  a  e,  d  . ,  and  d  f.  They  rest  on  the  plate  at  the 
foot,  and  bear  agains*:  tlio  ridge  board  a  d  at  the  top.  At  <j  h  is 
shown  also  a  valley  rafter.     It.  will  be  seen  that  the  hip  rafter  is 


Fig.  160.    Plan  of  Roof  with  Hip.  Rafters. 

exactly  the  same  as  the  valley  rafter.  It  has  the  same  pitch,  or 
inclination,  toward  the  ridge  a  d.  Its  pitch  must  be  the  same 
since  it  lies  in  the  same  roof  surface,  and  is  parallel  to  the  valley. 
This  similarity  between  hip  and  valley  rafters  is  characteristic,  and 
the  same  methods  of  cutting  bevels  which  were  explained  in  con- 
nection with  -valley  rafters  are  eqally  applicable  in  the  case  of  hip 
rafters.  The  pitch  of  the  hip  roofs  A  and  B  may  be  varied  to 
suit  the  design,  but  usually  the  hip  roofs  hav^e  the  same  j^itch  as 
the  main  roof.  The  position  of  the  hip  rafter  on  the  plan  is  deter- 
mined from  the  pitch  of  the  two  roof  surfaces  of  which  it  is  a  part 
in  the  same  way  as  was  explained  for  valley  rafters.  All  lines  in 
the  roof  surfaces  A  and  B  which  are  parallel  to  the  plates  b  c  and 
e  f  are  horizontal,  and  have  the  same  elevation  throughout  their 
length.     There  is  but  one  bevel  at  the  top  of  the  hip  rafter  where 


109 


100 


CARPENTRY 


it  l)ears  jurainst  the  ridge,. and   this  is  fsiniiUir  to  that  at  tlie  top  of 
tlie  valley.     It  is  cut  in  the  same  r^ty  as  the  valley  rafter. 

Curved  Hip  Rafters.  A  form  of  hip  rafter  which  is  some- 
times a  source  of  considerable  trouble  is  one  which  occurs  in  a 
curved  roof,  such  as  an  (xjce  roof  over  a  bay  window,  or  a  curved 
tower  roof.  The  shape  of  the  curve  to  which  the  top  edges  of  the 
common  rafters  must  be  cut,  is  determined  from  the  shape  of  the 
section  of  the  curved  roof  surface,  but  the  curve  at  the  top  of  the 
hip  rafter  is  entirely  different,  and  must  be  determined  in  another 
way.  The  principle  used  in  finding  this  curve  is  the  same  as  w-as 
employed  in  the  case  of  the  valley  rafter,  namely,  that  any  line 
drawn  in  the  roof  surface  parallel  to  the  wall  plate  must  be  hori- 
zontal, or  that  it  must  be  at  exactly  the  same  elevation  throughout 
its  entire  length. 


3  y^ 

Fig.  161.    Ogee  Root  over  Bay  Window. 

Ficr.  101  shows  how  this  principle  may  be  applied.  At  A  is 
shown  a  plan  of  an  ogee  roof  over  a  bay  window  with  a  hip  rafter, 
il  e  and  common  rafters.  At  B  is  shown  an  elevation  of  one  of 
the  common  rafters  cut  to  coincide  with  the  curve  of  the  roof  sur- 
face. The  shape  of  the  curve  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  fancy  of  the 
desio-ner.  At  C  is  shown  an  elevation  of  the  hip  rafter  d  e,  show- 
incr  the  curve  to  which  It  must  be  cut  in  order  to  fit  into  the  roof. 

To  determine  this  curve  we  draw  on  the  roof  plan  at  A  any 
number  of  lines,  parallel  to  the  wall  plate.  These  must  be  hori- 
zontal, so  that  any  point  in  either  of  the  lines  is  at  the  same  height 


110 


CAEPEXTRY 


101 


above  the  top  of  the  plate  as  is  every  other  point  in  tlie  same  line. 
The  lines  /'  (j  and  h  i  in  the  elevation,  shown  at  B  and  0,  repre- 
sent the  level  of  the  top  of  the  plate.  By  projection  we  lind  that 
the  line  Jc  o  a'  /,  for  example,  is  at  a  distance  )ii  n  above  the  top  of 
the  plate  at  the  point  where  it  crosses  the  common  rafter  shown  at 
B.  Every  other  point  in  this  line  is  at  the  same  elevation,  inclnd- 
ing  the  point  o,  in  which  it  intersects  the  center  line  of  the  hip 
rafter  J  e.  By  projection  we  can  locate  the  point  o'  in  the  elevation 
shown  at  C,  making  the  distance  (/  p  equal  to  the  distance  m  n. 

In  the  same  way  we  can  obtain  as  many  points  in  the  curve 
of  the  hip  rafter  as  we  have  lines  drawn  on  the.  roof  plan.  The 
lines  may  be  drawn  as  close  together  as  we  wish,  and  the  number 
of  points  obtained  may  thus  be  increased  indefinitely.  When  a 
sufficient  number  of  points  have  been  thus  located,  the  curve  can 
be  drawn  through  them,  and  a  pattern  for  the  hip  rafter  is  thus 
obtained.  The  shape  of  the  curve  for  a  valley  rafter  is  found  in 
the  same  way  as  explained  for  a  hip  rafter. 

Jack  Rafters.  Fig.  1(32  shows  the  plan  of  a  roof  in  which 
there  are  hip,  valley,  and  jack 
rafters;  a  h  and  h  d  are  hip 
rafters,  c  <?  is  a  valley  rafter,  and 
the  rest  of  the  framing  is  made 
up  of  common  rafters  and  jack 
rafters.  At  h  f  m\^  e  h  are 
shown  the  ridge  boards.  Of 
the  jack  rafters  there  are  three 
different  kinds;  those  like  i  j^ 
which  run  from  the  vallev  rafter 
to  the  ridcre  board;  those  like 
h  /,  which  run  from  the  hip 

rafter  to  the  plate;  and  those  like  i  t,  which  lan  between  the  hip 
and  valley  rafters.  These  differ  from  each  other  only  with  respect 
to  the  bevels  which  have  to  be  cut  on  them.  The  jack  rafter  /  / 
has  a  simple  plumb  cut  at  the  top,  where  it  meets  the  ridge  board, 
similar  to  that  at  the  top  of  a  common  rafter;  and  at  the  bottom 
'/  where  it  meets  the  valley  rafter,  it  has  two  cuts — a  plumb  cut 
and  a  cheek  cnt — which  are  similar  to  the  cuts  on  a  valley  rafter 
where  it  comes  against  a  ridge  board,  as  explained  above.     The 


Fig.  163.    Roof  with  Hip,  Valley  and 
Jack  Rafters. 


Ill 


102 


CAKPENTRY 


rafter  Z'  I  lius  a  simple  foot  cut  at  the  bottom,  like  that  for  a  com- 
iiioii  rafter,  while  at  the  top  it  has  two  cuts  like  those  at  the  foot 
of  i  j.  The  rafter  / 1  has  two  cuts  at  each  end,  a  plnmb  cut  and  a 
check  cut,  where  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  hip  and  valley  rafters. 
All  of  these  bevels  can  be  obtained  by  the  same  methods  as  were 
employed  for  finding  the  bevels  on  the  valley  rafters.  Everything 
depends  upon  the  pitch  of  the  roof  in  M'hicli  the  rafters  lie,  and 
the  antrle  between  them  and  the  valley  or  hip  rafters.  The  length 
of  a  jack  rafter  is  proportional  to  its  distance  from  the  ridge  or 
plate  to  which  it  is  parallel,  the  longest  one  being  equal  in  length 
to  a  common  rafter,  and  the  lengths  decreasing  steadily  from  this 
j)oijit  to  the  point  where  the  valley  meets  the  ridge,  or  where  the 
hip  meets  the  plate,  as  the  case  may  be. 

BACKING    OF    RAFTERS. 

Hip  Rafters.  In  I'ig.  1<)8  we  have  a  plan,  in  outline,  of  a 

part  of  a  roof  willi  a  hip  (j  d  in  which  the  two  surfaces  A  and  B 
come  together.      Let  us  suppose  that  the  pitch  of  the  roof  surface 

A  is  eiixht  inches  to  the  foot,  and  that  of 
the  surface  B  is  twelve  inches  to  the  foot. 
Let  the  lines  f  c  d  and  d  1)  e  represent 
the  outside  faces  of.  the  two  wall  plates, 
which  come  to<jether  at  the  corner,  and 
let  the  dotted  lines  just  inside  of  these 
represent  the  inside  faces  of  the  plates. 
Suppose  that  the.  distance  (t  h  is  just 
twelve  inches,  and  we  have  the  point  it 
jnst  eight  inches  above  the  points  ^,  d 
and  <\  since  the  pitch  of  the  surface  A 
is  eight  inches  to  the  foot.  As  the  pitch 
of  the  surface  B  is  twelve  inches  to  the 
foot,  the  distance  c  a  must  be  eight  inches,  in  order  to  give  a  rise  of 
eight  inches  at  the  points,  and  the  distance  d  h  must  also  be  eight 
inches,  and  ed  must  be  the  same  as  a  l>,  which  is  twelve  inches. 

Now  supj)ose  that  tlie  liney  a  e  be  drawn  through  the  point 
(I  ])erpendicular  to  the  liij»  line  r/  y,  and  let  it  represent  <i  veHloil 
plane  which  is  passed  down  through  the  roof  surfaces,  perpendic- 
ular to  the  j)lan  of  the  hip  line,  cutting  the  hip  rafter  and  plates. 


Fig.  163.    I'art  ]'l:m  of 
11  ip  Hoof. 


112 


CARPENTRY 


103 


Fig.  104  shows  the  section  of  the  loof  surfaces  cut  out  by 
this  plane.  We  have  the  point  «,  eight  inches  above  the  points  f 
and  e.  making;  the  distance  a  h  eight  inches.  The  dotted  lines 
show  the  roof  surfaces,  and  a  e  and  a  f  slyq  the  lines  which  are  cut 
out  of  these  surfaces  by  the  vertical  plane.  The  section  in  nop 
shows,  much  exaggerated  in  size,  the  section  of  the  hip  rafter  cut 
out  by  the  vertical  plane,  and  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  upper 
corners  of  this  rafter  a  in  j  and  a  n  i  project  out  into  the  roof 
surfaces  on  each  side.  These  projecting  corners  must  be  cut  off, 
so  that  the  section  of  the  rafter  will  be  a  i  j)  o  j  and  this  is  called 


Fig.  164.    Section  through  Roof  Surfaces. 

haekiiKi  the  rafter.  At  C  is  shown  an  isometric  drawinor  of  the 
rafter,  lettered  the  same  as  in  the  section,  so  that  it  may  be  more 
easily  understood  just  what  the  hacking  involves. 

The  question  is  "  How  do  we  know  how  much  to  cut  off  from 
the  corners  of  the  rafter  in  any  particular  case,  and  how  can  it  be 
indicated  on  the  piece  of  timber  so  that  these  cuts  can  be  made?" 
This  question  will  now  be  answered. 

In  making  the  foot  cut  on  the  rafter,  we  have  to  cut  out  just 
such  a  vertical  section  as  is  indicated  in  Fig.  164.  We  can  find 
the  point  a  on  this  section  in  the  center  of  the  top  edge  of  the 
rafter  and  draw  lines  a  j  and  a  i  directly  on  the  section  of  the 
piece,  and  from  the  points  /and^  lines  like  /  /',  in  the  isometric 


113 


104  CARPENTRY 


view  at  r,  can  l)e  drawn  on  the  sides  of  the  rafter,  which  will  show 
the  amount  to  be  cnt  oft*  from  the  corners.  In  order  to  do  this, how- 
ever, we  must  know  the  bevel  of  the  lines  a  e  and  <i  f:  that  is,  we 
must  know  the  angles  ti  a  l  and  ni  a  j  for  any  particular  case. 
In  the  case  we  are  considering  Me  know  that  the  distance  ((  //,  Fig;. 
1(>4,  is  eight  inches,  as  explained  above,  and  we  need  only  to  find 
the  distances  //  e  and  //  /"  in  order  to  detern)ine  the  two  bevels. 
The  distances  a  e  and  a  f  in  the  plan,  Fig.  1G8,  are  the  same  as 
//  c  and  ///'in  Fig.  1()4:.  Kow  let  us  find  a  e.  The  length  of  a  h 
was  assumed  at  the  start  to  be  twelve  inches,  and  d  h  was  found 
to  be  eight  inches.     On  account  of   the  similarity  of    triangles, 

— i  is  equal  to  :=— ,  so  that  }>  e\^  -^  of    a  h.    or    eighteen    inches. 

Then  ((  e  must  be  about  tweJity-one  and  one-half  inches,  and  //  e 
in  Fig.  1()4:,  is  the  same.  We  now  know  both  Ji  e  and  a  h  in  Fig. 
104,  and  these  two  distances  determine  the  bevel  of  the  line  a  e. 
In  the  same  way,  the  distance  A  fmny  be  foiuid  and  the  bevel  of 
the  line  a  f  uiay  be  determined.  It  may  somotiines  be  found 
more  convenient  to  draw  the  roof  plan  accuiately  to  scale  and 
then  to  scale  the  distances,  instead  of  calculating  th.3iii,  but  this 

amounts  to  the  same  noting  in  the 
^^,,jj_     'pjjy  bevels  of  the  liueiS  df 

\  and  a  e  may  also  be  found  gra[)h- 

\  ically  as  shown  in  Fig.  165.     Sup- 

\  pose  this  plan  to  be  drawn  accu- 

\ rately  to   a  fairly   large  scale, 

/  Starting  with  the  point  a  on  the 

'y^^         >4  hip  line  d  y,  we   draw  the  line 

~/r'Z'^\  ■  ^  ^  /■>  perpendicular  to   the  hip 

_  I  /'I'jvv iine^  and  the  lines  a  l>  and  a  c  per- 

'^     ^  ^  peadicular  to  the  wall  lines  d  e 

^'^'  "^ViudhS^Beve^^'^'"'^  °'  '"^^  ^^  /•     1^^»'"'»  ^  ^^'^^  can  draw 

the  line  h  a"  making  the  same 
angle  with  a  h  that  the  roof  surface  A  makes  with  the  horizontal 
plane.  Then  if  if  a"  be  drawn  from  a  perpendicular  to  a  h  the  dis- 
tance a  a"  will  be  equal  to  the  actual  elevation  of  the  point  ((  above 
the  point  b.  Thus  distance  can  be  laid  off  along  the  hip  line,  d  (j 
perpendicular  to  the  line/'  a  e,  by  swinging  the  point  a"  around 


Hi 


CARPENTRY 


105 


tO(^'.  Then  the  distance  a  a  is  equal  to  the  elevation  of  the  point 
a  above  the  point  ^,  and  above  the  points  e  and  /  also.  The  lines 
a'  e  and  a  f  make  the  same  ancrle  with  the  line  fa  e  that  the 
lines  a  e  and  a  f\  in  Fig.  104,  make  with  the  horizontal,  and  we 
can  get  the  bevels  from  these  lines.  At  PI  is  shown  a  small  sec- 
tion taken  vertically  through  the  hip  rafter,  similar  to  the  section 
of  the  rafter  shown  in   Fio-.  164. 

Valley  Rafters.  In  Fig.  106  we  have  a  plan  in  outline  of  a 
part  of  a  roof  with  a  valley  a  Ij  between  the  roof  surfaces  C  and  D 
and  with  ridges  A  c  and  b  d.  Let  us  assume  the  pitches  of  the 
roof  surfaces  to  be,  as  before,  eight  inches  to  the  foot  for  C  and 
twelve  inches  to  the  foot  for  D.  Assume  a  e  to  be  twelve  inches, 
and  e  /'will  be  eight  inches  and  the  point /'must  be  eight  inches 


F'ig.  166.    Roof  with  Valley 
and  Ridges. 


/    \ 


\    • 


Fig.  \6'i.    Method  of  Finding  Bevels. 


above  tlie  points/,  as  explained  in  the  case  of  the  hip  rafter.  Since 
we  know  a  e  and  e  f  in  Fig.  166  Ave  can  find  e  i  from  the  simi- 
larity of  the  triangles,  as  in  the  case  of  the  hip  rafter,  and  then  we 
can  find  both  a  i  and  f  L  Ivnowincr  a  /,  and  knoM-ino;  the  pitch 
of  the  roof  surface  C",  we  can  find  the  elevation  of  the  point  / 
above  the  point  a.  Since  we  know  that  the  point/*  is  eight  inches 
above  the  point  a  we  can  find  the  elevation  of  the  point  /  above 
the  point  f,  and  this  with  the  distance/'  /  Mill  give  the  bevel  of 
the  line/ i  iu  Fig.  167.  In  the  same  way  the  bevel  of  the  line/ 
/  may  be  found.  These  bevels  can  be  laid  off  on  the  vertical  sec- 
tion of  the  valley  rafter  which  is  cut  out  when  the  foot  cut  is 
made,  and  the  distances  at  which  the  tops  of  the  jacks,  E  and  F  in 
Fig.  167,  must  be  set  above  the  top  of  the  valley  rafter  g  may  be 
determined.  In  order  that  the  lines/"  /  and // iu  Fig.  167  inay 
come  on  the  surface  of  the  valley  rafter  section,  they  may  be  drawn 


115 


106 


CARPENTKY 


•'4- 


Fig.  168.    Grapbloal  Method  of  Finding 
Bevels. 


sloping  downward  instead  of  upward,  as  shown  at/"?''  andy/'.     The 

j)oiiit/'is  always  in  the  center  of  the  top  edge  of  the  valley  rafter. 

Fig.   1()S  shows  how  the  bevels  for  the  valley  rafter  may  be 

found    graphically.      Starting  with  the  point/' we  can  draw  lines 

ofjh  ^  ^  h  ^nd  a  <j  j  perpen- 
dicular respectively  to  the  val- 
ley line  a  h  and  to  the  two 
outside  wall  lines.  The  lines 
a  i"  and  a  j"  havincr  been 
drawn  corresponding  to  the 
pitches  of  the  two  roof  sur- 
faces, M'e  have  the  distances 
'/  i"  and  y'  j"  showing  the  ele- 
vation of  the  points  i  and  J. 
These  distances  can  now  be 
swung  around  perpendicular 
to  the  Wneofp^  so  as  to  give 
the  points  t'and  j'.^  The  distances  ey  and  g  f'\  which  should  be 
the  same,  show  the  elevation  of  the  point/,  and  this  distance  may 
belaid  off  perpendicular  to  «9yj9,  as  shown  2itff'.  Then  the  lines 
/"  i'  and/"  ;"  correspond  to  the  lines/' *  and/"  ;*,  in  Fig.  1(^)7,  and 
give  the  bevels  which  we  need.  At  Q  is  shown  a  vertical  section 
of  the  valley  rafter  and  the  jack  rafters  si luilar  to  Fig.  167. 

ATTIC    PARTITIONS. 

Tt  is  often  necessary  to  build  partitions  in  the  story  directly 
l)eneath  the  roof,  and  such  partitions  must  extend  clear  up  to  the 
under  side  of  the  rafters  and  connect  with  them  in  some  way. 
This  makes  it  necessary  to  cut  the  tops  of  the  studs  on  a  bevel  to 
correspond  with  the  pitch  of  the  rafters,  and  the  cutting  of  this 
bevel  is  not  always  an  easy  task.  Fig.  109  shows  the  framing 
plan  of  the  roof  of  a  small  simple  building,  a  h  is  the  rid^re. 
The  plate  extends  around  the  outside  from  c  to  d  to  e  to/',  and 
back  again  to  c\  and  g  /i,  i  j,  h  I  are  the  rafters.  A  partition  is 
shown  beneath  the  roof  running  diagonally  across  the  buildincr, 
makino;  an  ano;le  with  the  direction  of  the  rafters  and  an  ancrle 
with  the  direction  of  the  ridge.  At  n  <>  is  shown  another  partition 
ninuing  parallel  to  the  ridge,  and  at  2>  '2  still  another,  running 


116 


CARPENTRY 


107 


parallel  to  the  rafters.  Kow  since  all  the  rafters  slope  upwards 
from  the  plate  to  the  ridcre,  it  is  evident  that  the  tops  of  all  the 
studs  must  be  cut  on  a  bevel  if  they  are  to  fit  closely  against  the 
undersides  of  the  rafters.  This  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  170,  where 
the  stud  A  must  fit  ao-ainst  the  rafter  B. 


dhJl 


?n 


A 


i 

i 

k 

V 

/ 

/ 

/ 

^ 

, 

9 

i 

k 

/ 
/ 

/; 
'/ 

'/ 

n 

o 

■ 

r 

B 


chJ  I 


r 


Fig.  169.    Framing  Plan  of  Small  Roof. 


Fig.  170.    Connection  of  Studs 
and  Rafters. 


To  take  the  simplest  case  first,  let  us  consider  the  stud  marked 
r.  Since  all  the  rafters  have  the  same  pitch  or  slope,  all  the  studs 
in  the  partition  n  6>  will  have  the  same  bevel  at  the  top,  and  if  we 
find  the  bevel  for  one  we  can  cut  the  bevel  for  all.  Fig.  170 
shows  this  stud  drawn  to  a  larger  scale  and  separated  from  the 
rest;  a  h  c  d  is  a  plan  of  the  stud,  and  the  rafter  is  shown  at  efgh. 
We  will  take  the  distance  /'  Jl,  or  the  run  of 
the  part  of  the  rafter  shown,  as  one  foot  exactly. 
Kow  if  A  and  B  represent  a  side  elevation  of  the 
rafter  and  stud  looking  in  the  direction  shown 
by  the  arrow,  the  run,  of  the  part  of  the  rafter 
shown  is  the  distance  j  q.  and  the  distance  q  o 
should  be  equal  to  the  rise  of  the  rafter  in  one 
foot.  Let  the  rise  in  this  case  be  nine  inches. 
Then  Jv  n  shows  the  bevel  of  the  top  of  the  stud. 
If  the  stud  is  a  two  by  four  stick,  the  distance 
/.'  /'  is  just  four  inches,  or  one-third  of  the  run 
of  the  rafter,  and  consequently  the  distance  r  n 
is  just  three  inches,  or  one-third  of  the  rise  of 
the  rafter. 

In  the  case  of  the  studs  forming  the  partition  q^  q  i'l  Fig- 161), 
the  bevel  is  found  in  the  same  way,  the  only  difference  being  that 
the    rafter  now  crosses  the  stud,   as   shown    in    Fig.   171,  where 


Fit 


171 
Rafter 


Stud  and 


117 


108 


CARPENTRY 


a  h  c  <l  is  tlio  stud  and  <■  f  (j  h  is  the  rafter,  both  shown  in  iilan. 
In  the  case  of  the  pai-tition  h  m.  Fig,  lOl),  we  have  to  deal 
with  a  somewhat  more  ditiieult  problem  because  the  rafter  crosses 
the  studs  diagonally  and  the  studs  must  be  beveled  diagonally  on 
top  so  that  the  bevel  M'ill  run  from  corner  to  corner  instead  of 
straight  across  the  stud  from  side  to  side.  An  enlarged  ])lan  of 
one  stud  with  tlie  rafter  running  across  it  is  shown  in  Fif.  172. 
Let  a  h  c  d  be  the  stud   and  e  f  </  li  the  rafter;  i  j  I'  I  shows  the 

rafter  in  elevation  lookino;  in  the  di- 
rection  shown  by  the  arrow,  and  a'  b' 
c  iV  shows  the  stud  as  seen  from  this 
same  direction.  The  corner  d  of  the 
stud  cannot  be  seen  from  this  side 
and  is  shown  as  a  dotted  line  in  the 
figure.  The  rafter  cuts  across  the  cor- 
ners  of  the  stud  at  the  points  <>'  h'  c 
and  d\  tjivincr  the  bevel  shown  in  the 
figure.  This  bevel  luay  be  cut  by 
drawing  any  line  all  the  way  around 
the  stud,  S(iuare  with  tlie  edcjes,  as  shown  at  m  v.  and  laviiitJ"  off 
front  tliis  line  on  tlie  edges  of  the  stud  the  distances  a  a'\  u'  />'', 
c'  <■",  and  d'  d".  Lines  drawn  across  the  faces  of  the  stud  con- 
necting the  points  so  obtained  M'ill  give  the  exact  bevel. 


Fig.  173.    Stnrt  and  Diagonal 
R;iftLT. 


SPECIAL    FRAMING. 

AVe  have,  in  the  preceding  pages,  considered  the  flaming 
M"hich  enters  intoa  l>uildini£  of  lio-ht  construction,  such  as  an  ordi- 
nary  dwelling  house,  but  there  are  certain  classes  of  structures 
which  call  for  heavier  framing,  or  framing  of  special  character. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  hattered  frames,  or  frames  Avith 
inclined  walls;  trussed  partitions;  in<-lined  and  bowled  floors; 
special  forms  of  reinforced  beams  and  girders;  the  framing  for 
balconies  and  galleries;  tiiiil)er  trusses;  towers  and  spires;  domes, 
pendentives  and  niches;  and  vaults  and  groins.  T])ese  subjects 
will  be  now  taken  up  and  discussed,  and  the  methods  employed  in 
framing  such  structures  will  be  explained. 

Battered  Frames,  ^onietinies  it  is  necessary  to  build  a 
structure  with  the  walls    inclined  inward,  so  that  they  approach 


118 


CARPENTRY 


109 


each  otlier  at  the  top,  and  so  that  the  top  is  smaller  than  the  bot- 
tom. This  is  the  case  with  the  frames  which  support  water  tanks 
or  windmills.  An  elevation  of  one  side  of  a  frame  of  this  kind  is 
shown  in  Fig.  173  with  a  plan  in  outline  at  A.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  corner  posts  a  a  are  inclined  and  approach  each  other  at 
the  top,  so  that  they  are  not  perpendicular  to  the  sill  at  the  bot- 
tom. This  means  that  the  foot  of  the  post,  where  it  is  tenoned 
into  the  sill,  must  be  cut  on  a  bevel,  and  the  bevel  must  be  cut 
diagonally  across  the  post,  from  corner  to  corner,  since  the  post 
pitches  diagonally  toward  the  center,  and  is  set  so  that  its  outside 
faces  coincide  approximately  with  the  planes  of  the  sides  of  the 
structure  as  indicated  in  the  plan  shown  in  Fig.  17-1:.  The  girts  h. 
Fig.  17;),  will  also  have  to  have  special  bevels  cut  at  their  ends, 
where  they  are  framed  into  the  posts. 


Pig.  173.    Battered  Frame. 


Fig.  174.    Bevel  of  Corner  Post 


After  a  corner  post  has  been  cut  to  the  proper  bevel  to  fit 
against  the  sill  the  section  cut  out  at  the  foot  will  be  diamond- 
shaped,  as  shown  at  a  h  c  d  in  Fig.  171,  which  shows  a  plan  of 
one  corner  of  the  sill.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  faces  a  h  and  a  d 
of  the  post  do  not  coincide  with  the  edges  of  the  sill  « /"and  a  g. 
If  the  structure  is  merely  a  frame  and  is  not  to  be  covered  over 
with  the  boarding  on  the  outside,  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  out- 
side faces  of  the  post  should  coincide  exactly  with  the  planes  of 
the  sides  of  the  structure,  and  in  this  case  posts  of  square  or  rect- 
angular section  may  be  used,  with  no  framing  except  the  bevels  and 
the  mort':  ?  for  the  girts.  If,  however,  the  frame  is  to  be  covered 
in,  the  poct  must  be  J«c'Aw?  so  as  to  be  able  to  receive  the  boarding. 

The  backing  consists  in  cutting  the  post  to  such  a  shape  that 
when  the  bevel  is  cut  at  the  foot,  the  section  cut  out  will  be  similar 
to  that  shown  ?it  e  h  c  d  in  Fig.  171.     The  hacked  post  must  then 


119 


110  CARPENTRY 


be  set  on  the  sills  so  tliat  the  jxjint  e  will  come  at  the  corner  a. 
The  face  of  the  post  e  h  will  then  coincide  with  the  face  of  the  sill 
af.  The  post  slioiild  be  backed  before  the  bevels  are  cut  because 
setting  it  back  the  distance  a  e  may  make  a  difference  in  the  re- 
quired length  between  bevels.  If  the  post  was  of  square  section 
before  backing  it  will  have,  after  backing,  a  ])eculiar  rhoi!il)us- 
shaped  section,  as  is  shown  at  A  in  Fig.  174-.  Here  A  i  j  k  shows 
the  original  square  section,  and  I  i  j  I'  shows  the  section  after 
backing.     These  sections  are  taken  square  across  the  post  perpen- 

dicular  to  the  edores, 
o 

Fig.  175  shows  how  the  amount  of  backing  necessary  in  any 
particular  case  may  be  determined.  Suppose  that  wo  have  a  case 
where  the  frame  is  not  square  in  plan,  as  shown  in  Fig.  173,  but 


Fig.  175.    Determining  Amoimt  of  Bacldng. 


is  rectancrular,  one  side  beincr-inuch  longer  than  the  other.  In 
this  case  the  diagonal  of  the  frame  formed  by  the  sills  will  not 
coincide  with  the  diagonal  of  the  section  of  the  post.  Fig.  175 
shows  at  A  a  plan  of  the  post  as  it  would  appear  if  it  were  set  up 
perpendicular  to  the  sills.  The  sills  are  shown  by  the  dotted  lines. 
At  B  is  shown  an  elevation  of  the  post  looking  in  the  direction 
shown  by  the  arrow  //.  The  section  shown  at  A  is  taken  on  the 
line  V  /'.  In  the  frame,  however,  the  post  is  indini'd  toward  the 
center,  so  that  the  section  cut  out  at  the  foot  of  the  ])ost  by  the 
plane  of  the  top  of  the  sill  will  not  be  square  M'ith  the  edges  of  the 
post  as  is  the  section  ij^  but  will  be  at  an  angle  Mith  them.  Such 
a  section  is  taken  on  the  line  I-  1  and  is  shown  at  0. 


120 


CARPENTRY  111 


The  section  of  the  post  is  shown  by  m  n  o  j>  and  the  sill  is 
indicated  by  the  dotted  lines.  The  post  must  now  be  backed  so 
that  this  section  will  take  the  form  shown  by  q  n  o  j>,  the  sides 
J)  q  and  n  q  being  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the  sill  w^  r  and  'nh  s. 
This  point  q  determines  the  position  of  the  outside  corner  of  the 
post  after  it  has  been  backed  and  corresponds  to  the  point  t  on  the 
line  k  I.  Then  the  line  t  u  is  the  elevation  of  the  outside  corner 
of  the  post  after  backing,  and  the  section  i  j  cuts  this  line  at  h. 
The  corner  shown  by  the  line  t  ii  must  be  diagonally  opposite  the 
inside  corner  of  the  post,  so  it  must  bo  indicated  on  the  section 
shown  at  A  by  the  point  e.  Then  e  h  o  d  is  the  shape  to  which 
the  post  must  be  trimmed.  This  can  be  laid  out  on  the  square 
end  of  the  rough  post  and  it  can  then  be  trimmed  to  the  correct 
shape.     The  backing  will  then  be  complete. 

Fig.  17G  shows  how  the  foot  cut  for  the  inclined  post  may  be 
obtained   by  using  the  steel  square.     In  Fig.  173  it  will  be  seen 
that   the  post  a  slopes  toward  the  center  in  the  elevation  there 
shown,  and  it  likewise  slopes  toward  the  cen- 
ter in  the  other  elevations,  either  with  the 
same  pitch  or  with  ^  different  pitch.     The 
result  of  the  two  slopes  is  to  cause  the  post  to 
slope  diagonally.    It  is  an  easy  matter  to  find 
the  pitch  in  each  elevation  since  it  depends 
upon  the  size  of  the  base  and  top,    and    the 
height  between  them.     We  then  have  the  two      '^^'   ''   cut!^^"^ 
pitches,  the  combination  of  which  gives  the 

true  pitch,  diagonally.  They  caiiy  however,  be  treated  separately. 
The  square  may  be  applied  to  the  post,  as  shown  in  Fig.  170, 
with  the  rise  on  the  blade  and  the  run  on  the  tongue,  and  a  line 
may  be  drawn  along  the  tongue.     The  post  can  then  be  turned 


over  and  the  'pitch  shown  in  the  other  elevation  may  be  laid  off 
on  the  adjacent  side  in  the  same  way  with  the  rise  on  the  blade 
and  the  run  on  the  tongue  of  the  square.  Thus  a  continuous  line 
ah  cd  may  be  drawn  around  the  post  and  it  can  be  cut  to  this  line. 
Trussed  Partitions.  It  is  very  often  necessary  to  construct- 
a  partition  in  some  story  of  a  building  above  the  first,  and  in  such 
a  position  that  there  can  be  no  support — as,  for  instance,  a  parti- 
tion in  the  story  below — beneath  it.     In   this  case  the  partition 


121 


112 


CARPENTRY 


must  l)e  made  self  supporting  in  some  way.  The  usual  method  is 
to  huikl  what  is  known  as  a  trussed  partition.  This  consists  of  a 
timber  truss,'  lijrlit  or  heavy,  according  as  the  distance  to  be 
spanned  is  small  or  great,  which  is  built  into  the  partition  and 
covered  over  with  lathing  and  plastering  or  with  sheathing. 

Fig.  177  and  178  show  two  forms  of  trussed  partitions  which 
are  in  common  use.  The  one  shown  in  Fig.  177  may  be  employed 
for  a  solid  partition,  or  a  partition  with  a  door  opening  in  tlie  mid- 
dle, while  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  178  is  applicable  where  the  Avail 
must  be  ])ierced  by  door  openings  in  the  sides.  The  truss  must  be 
so  designed  that  it  will  occupy  as  little  space  as  possible  in  a 
lateral    direction,    so  that   the  partition    need   not  l)e  abnormally 


Fit;:.  177.    Trussed  Partition. 


Fig.  178.    Trussed  Partition. 


thick.  If  possible  it  is  best  to  make  the  truss  so  that  it  will  go 
into  a  four-inch  partition,  but  if  necessary  five  or  si.\-inch  stud- 
ding may  be  used  and  the  truss  members  may  be  inci'eased  in  size 
accordingly.  The  faces  of  the  truss  members  should  be  Hush  with 
the  faces  ol"  the  partition  studdincj,  so  as  to  receive  lathiiif  or 
sheath  inn-. 

The  size  of  the  truss  meml)ers  depends  entirely  upon  the 
weight  which  the  ])artition  is  called  u|)on  to  carrv.  Besides  its 
own  weight  a  partition  is  often  called  upon  to  carry  one  end  of  a 
set  of  lloor  joists,  and  sometimes  it  supports  columns  which  re- 
ceive the  whole  weiglit  of  a  story  above.  In  any  case  the  pieces 
must  be  very  strongly  framed  or  spiked  together,  and  sound  mate- 
rial, free  from  shakes  and  knot  holes,  must  be  used. 

Inclined  and  Bowled  Floors.  In  any  large  room  which  is  to 
be  used  as  a  lecture  hall,  the  floor  should  not  be  perfectly  level 


122 


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CARPENTRY 


113 


throughout,  but  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  be  higher  at  the 
back  of  the  room  than  it  is  at  the  front.  The  fall  of  such  a  floor 
from  back  to  front  should  be  not  more  than  three  quarters  of  an 
inch  in  one  foot,  and  a  fall  of  one-half  an  inch  in  one  foot  is  much 
better.  If  the  floor  has  a  greater  slope  than  this  it  becomes  very 
noticeable  when  anyone  attempts  to  walk  over  it. 

The  simplest  way  to  arrange  for  the  slope  is  to  construct  what 
is  known  as  an  inclined  floor,  which  rises  steadily  from  front  to 

back  so  that  a  line  drawn  across 
it  from  side  to  side,  parallel  to 
the  front  or  rear  wall  of  the  room, 
will  be  level  from  end  to  end. 
There  are  two  methods  of  build- 
ing an  inclined  floor,  the  differ- 
Fig.  179.  Inclined  Floor.  ence  between  them  beino-  iu  the 

arrangement  of  the  girders  and 
floor  joists.  The  two  methods  are  shown  in  Figs.  179  and  180. 
lig.  179  shows  the  sirrangement  when  it  is  necessary  to  have 
the  girders  run  from  the  back  to  the  front  of  the  room,  parallel  to 
the  slope  of  the  floor.  In  this  case  the  girders  a  are  set  up  on  an 
incline,  and  the  joists  b  resting  on  top  of  them,  are  level  from  end 
to  end.  Each  line  of  joists  is  at  a  different  elevation  from  the  lines' 
of  joists  on  each  side  of  it.  The  floor  laid  on  top  of  the  joists  will 
then  have  the  required  inclination.  The  slope  of  the  girders  must 
be  the  same  as  the  slope  required  for  the  finished  floor. 

Fig.  ISO  shows 
the  arrano-ement  when 
it  is  desired  that  the 
girders  shall  run  from 
side  to  side  of  the 
room,  at  right  ancrles 
to  the  direction  of  the 
slope  of  the  floor.  The 
joists  a   will  then   be 

parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  slope,  and  are  inclined  to  the  hori- 
zontal, while  the  girders  h  are  level  from  end  to  end.  Each  line 
of  girders  is  at  a  different  elevation  from  every  other  line  of 
girders,  and  these  elevations  must  be  so  adjusted  that  the  joists 


Sana 

Fig.  180.    Inclined  Floor. 


123 


114 


CARPENTRY 


resting  on  top  of  the  girders  will  slope  steadily  from  end  to  end. 
When  a  simple  inclined  floor  is  employed,  the  seats  must  be 
arranged  in  straight  rows,  extending  across  the  room  from  side  to 
side,  so  that  each  line  of  seats  may  be  level  from  end  to  end. 
This  arrangement  is  not  always  desirable,  however,  and  it  is  often 
much  better  to  have  the  seats  arranged  in  concentric  rings  all  fac- 
ing  the  speaker's  platform.  In  this  case  a  howled  floor  must  be 
built.  A  bowled  floor  is  so  constructed  that  a  segment  of  a  circle, 
drawn  on  the  floor  fi-om  a  center  in  the  front  of  the  room,  on,  or 
near,  the  speaker's  platform,  will  be  perfectly  level  throughout  its 


■'^^^^^<^^:f^^i^^:^;^i^::^i^^i^ 


Fig.  181.    rraming  Plan  of  Bowled  Floor. 

length.  This  means  that  the  floor  must  pitch  upward  in  all  direc- 
tions  from  the  speaker's  platform  or,  in  other  words,  it  must  be 
hoveled.  There  are  two  methods  of  constructing  a  floor  of  this 
kind.  The  simplest  way  is  to  build  first  an  ordinary  inclined  floor, 
M'hich  slopes  from  the  front  to  the  back  of  the  rooi^i,  and  then  to 
build  up  the  bowled  floor  with  furring  pieces.  This  method  should 
always  be  followed  when  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  space  beneath 
the  lecture  ball  free  from  posts  or  columns. 


124 


CARPENTRY  115 


The  second  method  is  to  arrange  girders,  as  shown  in  the 
framing  plan  of  a  bo^Yled  floor  in  Fig.  ISl.  These  girders  A  A 
are  tangent  to  concentric  circles  which  have  their  center  at  the 
speaker's  platform,  and  each  line  of  girders  is  at  a  different  eleva- 
tion. The  elevations  of  the  different  lines  of  girders  are  so  ad- 
justed that  the  floor  joists  B  B  which  rest  on  them  will  slope 
steadily  upward  as  they  recede  from  the  ]>]atf()rm.  The  girders 
maybe  supported  on  posts  beneath  the  floor  of  the  hall,  and  if  the 
space  under  the  floor  is  not  to  be  used  for  another  room,  this  is 
a  very  good  method  to  employ. 

Immediately  around  the  j^latform  there  will  be  a  space  D, 
the  floor  of  which  will  be  level,  and  the  slope  will  start  several 
feet  away  from  the  platform. 

Heavy  Beams  and  Girders.  For  ordinarv  frame  buildino-s, 
there  will  be  uo  difliculty  in  obtainincr  timbers  larcre  enouo-h  for 
every  purpose,  but  in  large  structures,  or  in  any  buildincr  where 
heavy  loads  must  be  carried,  it  is  often  impossible  to  get  a  single 
stick  which  is  strong  enough  to  do  the  work.  In  this  case  it 
becomes  necessary  to  use  either  a  steel  beam  or  a  trussed  o-irder  of 
wood,  or  to  build  up  a  compouud  wooden  girder  out  of  a  number 
of  single  sticks,  fastened  together  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  act 
like  a  single  piece. 

Steel  beams  are  very  often  employed  for  girders  when  a  sino-Ie 
timber  will  not  sufiice,  and  .although  they  are  expensive,  the  sav- 
ing in  labor  helps  to  offset  the  extra  cost  of  the  material. 

Wherever  wooden    joists  or  girders  come  in  contact  with  a 
steel  beam  they  must  be  cut  to  fit  against  it.     The  steel  shape  most 
commonly  employed  is  the  I-beam,  and  the  wooden  members  must 
be  cut  at  the  ends  so  as  to  fit  between  its  flancres.     This  is  shown 
in  Fig.   182.     The  joist  h  is  supported  on  the  lower  flange  of  the 
I-beam  c  and  the  strap  a  prevents  it  from  falling  away  from  the 
steel  member.     The  strap  is  bolted  or  spiked  to  the  wooden  beam 
and  is  bent  over  the  top  flange  of  the  steel  beam  as  shown.     If 
two  wooden  beams  frame  into  the  sleel  beam  opposite  each  other, 
a  straight  strap  may  be  used,  passing  over  the  top  of  the  steel  beam 
and    fastened    to   both    the    wooden    beams,    thus   hold! no-   them 
together.     If  a  better  support  is  desired  for  the  end  of  the  wooden 
beam,  an  angle  may  be  riveted  to  the  web  of  the  steel  I-beam,  as 


125 


nr, 


CARPENTRY 


shown  in  V\cr.  183,  and  the  end  of  the  wooden  joist  may  be  sup- 
ported on  tlie  angle.  This  is  an  expensive  detail,  however,  and  it 
is  seldom  necessary. 

If  a  timher  is  not  strontr  enough  to  carry  its  load,  and  if  it  is 
not  desirable  to  re])lace  it  Mith  a  steel  beam,  it  may  be  strengthened 
by  trussing.     Thei'e  are  two  methods  of  trussing  lieams;  by  the 


^  L's  riveted 


■-IbolC: 


FiR.  182.    I- Beam  and 
Wooden  Joist. 


Fig.  183.    I-Heani  Construction. 


addition  of  compression  members  above  the  beam,  and  by  the  addi- 
tion of  tension  members  below  it.  The  first  method  should  be 
em])loyed  whenever,  for  any  reason,  it  is  required  that  there  be  no 
projection  below  the  bottom  of  the  beam  itself.  The  second 
method  is  the  one  most  commonly  nsed,  especially  in  warehouses, 
stables,  and  other  buildings  where  the  appearance  is  not  an  impor- 
-tant  consideration. 

In  Fiij;.  1<S4  is  shown  a  beam  which  is  trussed  by  the  first 
method,  with  compression  pieces  a  <(  a  above  the  beam.  All  the 
parts  are  of  timber  excepting  the  rods  J>  h  which  may  l)e  of  wrought 
iron  or  steel.     The  beam  itself  is  best  made  in  two  parts  e  e  placed 


Fig.  184.    Trussed  Beam. 

side  by  side,  as  shown  in  the  section  at  A,  witii  the  ])arts  ff  a  fit- 
tincj  in  between  tlieni.  The  section  shown  at  A  is  taken  on  the 
line  <■  (1.  The  depth  of  tlie  girder  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  con- 
ditions of  each  case.  In  oeneral  the  deeper  it  is  made  the  stronger 
it  becomes,  provided  that  the  joists  are  made  sufficiently  strong. 


126 


CARPENTRY 


117 


Usually  girders  of  this  kind  are  made  shallow  enough  so  that  they 
will  be  contained  in  the  thickness  of  the  floor  and  will  not  project 
above  it.  A  slight  i)rojection  below  the  ceiling  is  not  a  serious 
disadvantage.  The  floor  joists  //  may  be  supported  on  the 
pieces  e  e,  as  shown  at  A. 

In  Figs.   185  and  186  are  shown  examples  of  girders  which 
are  trussed  by  the  second  method,  with  tension  rods  (/  d  below  the 


Cast  //-on  Sear^rj^s 


^ 


•S/ee/  rod 
Fig.  185.    King  Post  Trussed  Beam. 

beam.  These  rods  are  of  wrought  iron  or  steel,  and  the  struts  a  a 
are  of  cast  iron.  The  struts  may  be  made  of  wood  if  they  are 
short,  or  if  the  loads  to  be  carried  are  not  heavy.  Sometimes  the 
girders  are  made  very  shallow,  and  the  struts  a  a  are  then  merely 
wooden  blocks  placed  between  the  beam  e  and  the  rod  d  to  keep 
them  apart.  The  girder  shown  in  Fig.  185  is  known  as  a  Ung. 
post  trussed  beam,  while  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  18(3,  with  two 
struts  instead  of  one,  is  known  as  a  queen-jwst  trussed  beam. 
The  beam  itself  <?'may  be  made  in  two  pieces  side  by  side  with  the 
rods  and  the  struts  fitting  in  between  them,  or  it  may  be  a  single 


^ 


aMUCas.f  iron  struts 


^ 


■S/ee/  rod 


> 


Pig.  186.    Queen  Post  Trussed  Beam. 


stick,  and  the  rods  may  be  made  in  pairs,  passing  one  on  each  side 
of  the  beam.  In  the  latter  case  the  struts  would  simply  bear 
against  the  bottom  of  the  beam,  as  shown  in  the  illustrations,  being 
fastened  to  it  by  bolts  or  spikes,  so  that  they  will  not  slip  sideways^ 
It  sometimes  happens  that  a  heavy  girder  is  required  in  a 
situation  where  trussing  cannot  ])e  resorted  to,  and  where  steel 
beams  cannot  readily  be  obtained.  In  this  case  the  only  resource 
is  to  build  up  a  compound  beam  from  two  or  more  single  pieces. 
A  girder  of  this  kind  can  be  constructed  without  much  difliculty, 
and  can  be  so  put  together  as  to  be  able  to  carry  from  eighty  to 


127 


118  CARPENTRY 


ninety  ])er  cent  of  the  load  which  a  solid  j)iece  of  the  same  dimen- 
sions Mill  hear.  There  are  many  ways  of  combining  the  single 
timbers  to  form  com])onnd  beams,  some  of  the  most  common  of 
M'hieh  Mill  be  described. 

The  most  simple  combination  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  1S7.  The 
two  sincrle  timbers  are  bolted  tot^ether  side  by  side,  with  some- 
times  a  small  space  betAveeu  them.  The  bolts  should  be  spaced 
about  two  feet  apart  and  staggered,,  as  shown,  so  that  two  Mill  not 
come  side  by  side.  Usually  bolts  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  are  used. 

In  Fig.  188  is  shown  a  modification  of  this  girder  knoM-n  as 
a  fitch-plate  girder.  It  lias  a  plate  of  wrought  iron  or  steel, 
inserted  betM'een  the  tM'o  timbers,  and  the  M'hole  is  held  firmly 
together  by  bolts.  The  size  of  the  plate  should  be  in  j)roportion 
to  the  size  of  the  timbers,  so  as  to  make  the  most  economical 
combination. 

If  Me  have  two  pieces  of  timber  out  of  which  Me  M'ish  to 
make  a  compound  girder,  it  is  almost  always  possible  to  get  a 
stronger  combination  by  placing  them  one  on  top  of  the  other,  than 
by  placiiig  them  side  by  side.  This  is  because  the  strength  of  a 
l)eam  varies  as  the  square  of  its  depth ^  but  only  directly  as  its 
width.  For  this  reason  most  compound  girders  are  composed  of 
single  sticks  placed  one  abov'e  the  other.  The  tendency  is  for  each 
piece  to  bend  independently,  and  for  the  two  parts  to  slide  by  each 
other,  as  shoM'u  in  Fig.  180.  This  tendency  must  be  overcome 
and  the  parts  so  fastened  together  that  they  M'ill  act  like  a  single 
piece.  There  are  several  methods  in  common  use  by  M'hich  this 
object  is  accomplished. 

Fig.  190  shoM'S  the  most  common  method  of  building  up  a 
compound  girder.  The  timbers  are  placed  together,  as  shown, 
and  narrow  strips  of  M'ood  are  nailed  firmly  to  both  parts.  The 
strips  are  placed  close  against  each  other  and  have  a  slope  of  about 
forty-five  degrees,  sloping  in  opposite  directions,  however,  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  girder.  It  has  been  claimed  that  a  built  up 
girder  of  this  kind  Las  a  strength  ninety-five  per  cent  as  great  as 
the  strength  of  a  solid  piece  of  the  same  size,  but  it  is  very  doubt- 
ful Mhether  this  is  true  in  most  cases.  Actual  tests  seem  to  indi- 
cate that  such  girders  have  an  efficiency  of  only  about  seventy-five 


128 


CARPENTRY 


119 


per  cent.  They  usually  fail  by  the  splitting  of  the  side  strips,  or 
the  pulling  out  and  bending  of  the  nails,  but  seldom  by  the  break- 
ing of  the  main  pieces.  It  is,  therefore,  essential  that  the  strips 
should  be  very  securely  nailed  to  each  of  the  parts  which  make  up 
the  girder,  and  that  they  should  also  be  carefully  selected  so  that 
only  those  pieces  which  are  free  from  all  defects  may  be  used. 


bolts  jpaced  2  o" 


i 

J. 


<^     o              © 

© 

•t^       Bolts  jpaced  2  o" 

Jo               © 

© 

Fig.  187.    Compound  Beams. 


Fig.  188.    Flitch-Plate  Girders. 


These  girders  are  liable  to  considerable  deflection,  and  should  not 
be  used  in  situations  where  such  deflections  would  be  harmful. 

In  Fig.  191  is  shown  another  form  of  girder  with  the  parts 
notched,  as  shown,  so  as  to  lock  together.  This  prevents  them 
from  slipping  by  each  other.     Bolts  are  employed  to  hold  the  parts 


Woo/  sfrip%  at-t-s'  sfops 


^P^;^: 


Fig.  189.    Flexure  of  Compound 
Beams. 


Fig.  190.    Compound  Girder. 


together,  so  that  the  surfaces  will  always  be  in  close  contact. 
While  this  form  of  girder  is  very  easily  constructed,  it  has  many 
disadvantages.  A  great  deal  of  timber  is  wasted  in  cutting  out 
the  notches,  as  these  must  be  deep  enough  to  prevent  crushing  of 
the  wood  at  the  bearino-  surfaces,  and  thus  the  full  streno-th  of  the 
sticks  is  not  utilized.      Moreover,  it  is  apt  to  deflect  a  good  deal. 


Oafr     l.Aews 
-g?l h— ^ 


Fig.  191.    Notched  Beam. 


Fig.  192.    Keyed  Beam, 


and  its  eSiciency  is  not  so  great  as  that  of  other  forms.  On  the 
whole  it  is  considered  to  be  greatly  inferior  to  the  form  of  girder 
previously  described. 

The  form  of  compound  beam  which  is  almost  universally  con- 
sidered the  best  is.  that  shown  in  Fig.   192.     This  is  known  as  the 


129 


120  CAKPEXTKY 


'kexjed  leam,,  its  characteristic  feature  being  the  use  of  It'i/a  to  keep 
the  parts  from  sliding  on  each  other.  The  strength  of  a  keyed 
beam  has  been  found  by  actual  experiment  to  be  nearly  ninety-five 
per  -cent  of  the  strength  of  the  solid  timber,  while  the  deflection 
when  oak  keys  were  used  was  only  about  one-quarter  more  than 
the  deflection  of  the  solid  beam.  By  using  keys  of  cast  iron  in- 
stead of  wood  this  excess  of  deflection  in  the  built-up  girder  can 
be  reduced  to  a  very  small  percentage.  The  keys  should  be  made 
in  two  parts,  each  shaped  like  a  wedge,  as  explained  in  connection 
with  the  keys  for  tension  splices,  and  should  be  driven  from  op- 
posite sides  into  the  holes  made  to  receive  them,  so  as  to  fit  tightly. 
They  should  be  spaced  from  eight  to  sixteen  inches  apart,  center 
to  center,  according  to  the  size  of  the  timbers,  and  should  be 
spaced  more  closely  near  the  ends  of  the  beam  than  near  the  mid- 
dle. In  the  center  of  the  span  there  should  be  left  a  space  of  four 
or  five  feet  without  any  keys. 

Balconies  and  Galleries.  In  churches  and  lecture  halls  it  is 
almost  always  customary  to  have  one  or  more  balconies  or  galleries, 
extending  sometimes  around  three  sides  of  the  main  auditorium, 
but  more  often  in  the  rear  of  the  room  only.  These  galleries  are 
supported  by  the  wall  at  the  back  and  by  posts  or  columns  in 
front,  and  the  framing  for  them  is  usually  a  simple  matter. 

Ficf.  198  shows  a  sectional  view  of  a  gallery  frame,  as  they 
are  commonly  constructed.  There  is  a  girder  a  in  front,  which 
rests  on  top  of  the  columns  #,  and  supports  the  lower  ends  of  the 
joists  J,  forming  the  gallery  floor.  The  size  of  these  pieces 
will  depend  upon  the  dimensions  of  the  gallery,  the  spacing 
of  the  columns  which  support  the  girders  in  front,  and  various 
other  considerations.  Usually  joists  two  by  ten  or  three  by  twelve, 
and  girders  eight  by  ten  or  ten  by  twelve  will  be  found  to  be  suf- 
ficiently strong.  The  joists  should  be  spaced  from  fourteen  to 
twenty  inches,  center  to  center.  Very  of  ten  cast  iron  columns  are 
employed  to  support  the  girders.  At  the  top,  where  the  joists 
rest  on  the  wall,  they  should  be  cut,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  so 
that  they  may  have  a  horizontal  bearing  on  the  masonry,  and  at 
least  every  second  joist  must  be  securely  anchored  to  the  wall,  as 
is  the  one  shown.  Usually  galleries  are  made  with  straight  fronts, 
but  if  it  is  desired  that  the  seats  should  be  arranged  in  concentric 


130 


CARPENTRY 


121 


rings,    all  facing  the  speaker,  the  joists  may  be  placed  so  as  to 
radiate  from  the  center  from  which  the  seats  are  to  be  laid  out. 

The  seats  are  arranged  in  steps,  one  above  the  other,  and  the 
framing  for  the  steps  must  be  built  up  on  top  of  the  joists,  as 
shown  in  the  figure.  Horizontal  pieces,  c  c  c  usually  two  by  four 
or  three  by  four  in  size,  are  nailed  to  the  joists  at  one  end,  and  at 
the  other  end  are  supported  by  upright  pieces  d  d  d.  The  up- 
rights are  either  two  by  four  pieces  resting  on  top  of  the  joists  or 
strips  of  board,  one  inch  to  one  and  one-half  inches  thick,  Mhich 
are  nailed  to  the  sides  of  the  joists  and  to  the  sides  of  the  hori- 
zontal pieces.  Both  methods  are  shown  in  the  figure.  If  boards 
are  used,  they  should  be  placed  on  both  sides  of  the  joists.     Great 


Fig.  193.     Section  of  Gallery  Frame. 

care  should    be  taken  to  see  that  the  horizontal  pieces  are  truly 
horizontal. 

Balconies  and  galleries  almost  always  project  a  considerable 
distance  beyond  the  line  of  columns  which  support  the  lower  ends 
of  the  joists.  This  projection  varies  from  three  feet  to  ten  or 
twelve  feet.  If  the  overhang  is  not  more  than  five  feet,  it  can  be 
supported  by  extending  the  joists  beyond  the  girder,  as  is  shown 
in  Fig.  193.  A  strip  of  board,  tf,  about  one  and  one-half  inches 
thick,  is  nailed  to  the  side  of  the  joist,  and  a  furring  piece  /  is 
nailed  on  top  of  the  joist  at  its  lower  end  to  make  it  horizontal. 
The  railing  at  the  front  of  the  gallery  should  be  about  two  feet 
high,  and  may  be  framed  with  two  by  fonr  posts,  g  having  a  cap 
h  of  the  same  size  on  top. 

If  the  overhang  of  a  gallery  is  more  than  about  five  feet  it 
must   usuaiiy  be  supported  by  a  brace,  as    shown  in  Fig.  194. 


131 


122 


CAKPENTKY 


The  brace  a  is  nailed  to  the  post  h  and  to  the  overhanging  joist  r, 
or  may  be  framed  into  these  pieces.  If  the  construction  is  very 
light,  the  brace  may  consist  of  strips  of  board  nailed  to  the  sides 
of  the  joists,  but  in  heavy  work  it  must  be  a  timber  of  a  good  size, 
well  framed  into  both  the  post  and  the  joists.     These  braces  can 


Fig.  194.     Support  for  Extension  Beyond  Girder. 

only  be  placed  at  points  where  there  are  posts,  and  to  support  the 
ends  of  the  joists  M'hich  come  between  the  posts  there  must  be  a 
girder  d  running  along  the  front  of  the  gallery  and  supported  by 
the  braced  cantilevers  at  the  points  where  posts  are  placed. 

Timber  Trusses.     In  the  discussion  of  roofs  and  roof  fram- 
ing, only  those  were  considered  which  could  be  framed  with  ordi- 
nary rafters,  spaced  from  one  foot 


Q 


/Q 


=M 


-a 


c^a 


-b 
-b 
b 

b 

Wb 


to  two  feet  apart,  between  cen- 
ters, but  it  is  very  often  necessary 
to  build  roofs  of  larger  span,  for 
which  ordinary  rafters,  even  if 
supported  by  dwarf  walls  and 
collar  beams,  are  not  suUiciently 
stroncr.  In  this  case  a  different 
method  of  framing  is  employed. 
Instead  of  a  number  of  rafters 
spaced  fairly  close  together,  and  all  of  equal  strength,  we  have  a 
few  heavy  trusses,  placed  at  intervals  of  ten  feet  or  more,  and  span- 
ning tlie  entire  distance  between  the  side  walls.  On  top  of  the 
trusses  are  laid  J;;<7'Z^/^<?  running  parallel  to  the  side  walls,  which 


■X 


Fig.  195.    Timber-Trussed  Roof. 


132 


CAKPENTRY 


123 


in  their  turn  support  the  common  rafters.  There  may  be  one  or 
more  purlins  in  each  slope  of  the  roof,  depending  upon  the  size 
of  the  span.  This  arrangement  is  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  195,  in 
which  a  a  are  the  trusses,  h  h  are  the  purlins,  and  g  c  g  are  the 
common  rafters. 

There  are  many  different  kinds  of  trusses  which  are  in  com- 
mon use,  for  various  kinds  of  buildings,  differing  from  each  other 
chiefly  in  the  arrangement  of  the  tension  and  compression  pieces 
of  which  they  are  composed.  Some  are  built  entirely  of  timber, 
while  in  others  timber  is  employed  only  for  the  compression  pieces, 
and  wrought  iron  or  steel  for  the  tension  pieces.  Fig.  196  shows 
what  is  known  as  a  Tcing  jpost  truss.  Its  distinguishing  feature  in 
the  member  «,  called  the  Vinrj  jxM;  5  5  5  are  the  purlins,  and 
e  e  the  rafters  resting  on  them.     Two  different  methods  of  placing 


Fig.  196.    King-Post  Truss. 


Fig.  197.    Queen-Post  Truss. 


the  purlins  are  illustrated  in  this  figure.  As  will  be  readily  seen, 
some  of  them  are  set  so  that  their  longer  dimension,  in  cross  sec- 
tion, is  vertical,  while  others  are  set  so  that  the  longer  dimension 
is  at  rio-ht  ancrles  to  the  rafters.  Both  of  these  methods  are  com- 
monly  employed.  The  tension  members  c  c  are  merely  for  the 
support  of  the  lower  chord  or  tie  heam  d. 

Fig.  197  shows  a  modification  of  the  king  post  truss  which  is 
called  the  queen  post  truss.  Here  there  are  two  queen  posts  a  a 
in  place  of  the  single  king  post.  This  figure  also  shows  how  a 
floor  or  ceiling  may  be  supported  on  the  lower  chord  or  tie  heam 
of  the  truss.  The  joists  g  c  c  are  hung  from  the  chord  by  means 
of  stirrup  irons  or  patent  hangers.  The  queen  post  truss  is  some- 
what more  popular  in  building  work  than  is  the  king  post  truss, 
but  both  are  frequently  employed  in  halls,  warehouses,  and  stables 
where  an  ornamental  truss  is  not  required,  and  also  in  churches 
and  audience  rooms  where  they  are  to  be  concealed  by  other  finish. 


133 


124 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  198.    Fink  Truss. 


Ill  Ficr.  19S  is  shown  a  F'lnlc  truss,  which  is  a  very  ])()j)ular 
form,  especially  for  trusses  built  of  steel.  It  has  neither  king 
post  or  queen  posts,  and  the  tie  heam  a  is  of  iron  instead  of  timber. 
It  is  a  simple  and  cheap  form  of  truss  for  any  situation  where 

there  is  no  floor  or  ceilingr  to  be 
carried  by  the  lower  chord.  The 
struts  h  h  may  be  of  wood  or  of 
cast  iron.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  truss  consists  essentially  of 
two  trussed  rafters  set  up  against 
each  other,  with  a  tie  rod  a  to 
take  up  the  horizontal  thrust. 
Beside  the  forms  of  trusses  described  above,  there  are  other 
forms  which  are  used  in  churches  and  chapels  where  open  timber 
work  is  required,  and  where  they  will  not  be  concealed  by  other 
finish,  but  will  be  made  ornamental  in  themselves.  Among  these 
the  most  common  forms  are  the  so-called  scissors  truss  and  the 
haininer  heam  truss. 

The  scissors  truss  is  shown  in  Fig.  199.     It  has  no  tie  beam, 
and  therefore  it  may  exert  considerable  thrust  on  the  walls  of  the 
buildincr,  which  must  be  taken  care  of  by  buttresses  built  up  on 
the  outside  of  the  wall.     This  is 
perhaps  the  most  simple  form  of 
truss  which  can  be  used  when 
an  open  timber  truss  is  required. 
All  the  parts  are  of  wood.     If 
desired,  an  iron  tie  rod  may  be 
inserted  between   the  two  wall 
bearings  of   the  truss,  so  as  to 
diminish  the  thrust  on  the  walls, 
and  this  need  not  detract  seri- 
ously from  the  appearance  of  the 
open  timber  work. 

A  very  popular  form  of  truss 
for  use  in  churches  is  the  hammer  beam  truss  mentioned  above. 
This  is  shown  in  Fig.  200.     On  the  left  is  shown  the  framework 
for  the  truss,  while  on  the  right  is  shown  the  way  in  which  it 
may  be  finished.     Its  characteristic  feature  is  the  hammer  beam  a. 


Fig.  !'.«».    Scis.sors  Truss. 


134 


CARPENTRY 


125 


The  sizes  of  the  pieces  can  only  be  detei-niined  by  calculation  or 
experience,  and  depend  entirely  upon  the  span  of  the  truss  and  th^ 
loads  to  be  carried,  which  are  different  for  different  parts  of  the 
country.  It  is  common  practice  to  insert  a  tie  rod  between  the 
points  h  and  <■  to  take  up  some  of  the  thrust  which  would  other- 
wise come  on  the  walls.  All  parts  of  the  framework  must  be 
securely  bolted  or  spiked  together  so  as  to  give  a  strong,  rigid 
foundation  for  the  decoration,  and  this  sliould  be  regarded  merely 
as  decoration  and  should  not  be  considered  as  strengthening  the 
truss  in  any  way. 


Fig.  200.    Hammer  Bipam  Trus.s. 

Truss  Details.  There  are  several  ways  of  supporting  the 
purlins  on  wooden  trusses,  but  the  method  illustrated  in  Fig.  201 
is  one  of  tlie  best  as  well  as  the  most  frequently  employed.  A 
block  of  wood  a  is  set  up  against  the  lower  side  of  the  purlin,  and 
prevents  it  from  turning  about  the  corner  />,  which  it  has  a  ten- 
dency to  do.  The  block  is  set  into  the  chord  of  the  truss  to  a 
depth  sufficient  to  keep  the  purlin  from  sliding  downward  as  it 
receives  the  weight  from  the  rafters  <?.  This  fiuure  also  shows  the 
most  simple  method  of  framing  a  strut  into  the  chord  of  a  truss. 
The  strut  <:  is  set  into  the  chord  d  far  enough  to  hold  it  in  j)lace. 
If  it  is  perpendicular  to  the  chord,  it  need  not  be  so  set  into  it,  if 


135 


126 


CARPENTRY 


the  pieces  are  well  nailed  together,  because  in  this  case  there  is  no 
ttiidency  for  the  strut  to  slide  along  the  chord.  Care  should  ]>e 
taken  not  to  Aveaken  the  chord  too  much  in  cutting  these  mortises. 
Tn  Ficr.  202  are  shown  the  two  most  common  methods  of 
formino-  tlie  joint  between  the  top  chord  and  the  tie  beam  of  a 

truss.  The  connection  shown  at  A  depends 
upon  the  bolts  for  its  strength,  while  that 
shown  at  B  depends  upon  the  wrought  iron 
straps  (f,  which  are  bent  so  as  to  engage 
notches  cut  in  tlje  tie  beam  h.  The  piece  c 
is  very  often  added  beneath  the  tie  beam, 
at  the  bearing,  to  strengthen  it  at  this  point, 
where  it  is  subject  to  considerable  bending 
stress.  Tlie  block  d  is  merely  for  filling 
and  to  protect  the  bolts  when  they  pass  be- 
tween the  chord  and  the  tie  beam.  It  may  be  omitted  in  many 
cases.  The  plate  /"  is  placed  between  the  nuts  or  bolt  heads  and 
the  wood  to  prevent  the  crushing  of  the  latter.  Washers  should 
be  used  with  all  bolts  for  this  purpose. 

Fig.  203  shows  how  the  joint  at  the  center  of  the  tie  beam  of 
a  king  post  truss,  or  any  joint  between  two  struts,  may  be  formed. 
The  tie  beam  l-j,  shown  at  a,  and  b  h  are  the  struts.     The  blocks  c, 


Fig.  201.    Support  for 
'         Purlins. 


Fig.  202.    Joints  at  Top  Chord  and  Tie  Beams. 

set  between  tlie  struts,  receive  the  thrust  from  them.  They  should 
be  notched  into  the  tie  beam  re,  deep  enough  to  take  care  of  any 
inequality  between  the  thrusts  from  the  two  struts,  wliich  have  a 
tendency  to  balance  each  other.     This  block  is  often  made  of  cast 


136 


CARPENTRY 


127 


iron.  It  may  be  omitted  altogether,  in  M'Lich  case  the  struts  will 
come  close  together  and  bear  against  each  other.  The  rod  d  is  the 
king  post  which  supports  the  tie  beam  a  at  this  point.  It  is  often 
made  of  wood,  and  sometimes  the  struts  1)  h  are  framed  into  it 
instead  of  being  framed  into  the  tie  beam  a. 

Fig.  204  shows  a  form  of  connection  for  the  peak  of  a  truss, 
where  the  two  top  chords  or  j!/r?*;?r-?'^?«?  rafters  come  too-ether. 
The  plate  a  acts  as  a  tie  to  keep  these  members  in  place,  as  does 
the  bent  plate  5,  also.  The  plate  b,  moreover,  prevents  the  crush- 
ing of  the  timber  by  the  nut  of  the  king  post  tie  rod.  The  purlin 
c  supports  the  rafters  and  is  hollowed  out  at  the  bottom  to  admit  the 
nut  d.    The  two  principal  rafters  bear  against  each  other  and  must 


Fig.  303.    Joint  at  Center  of 
Tie  Beam. 


Fig.  204.    Peak  of  Truss. 


be  cut  so  that  the  bearing  area  between  them  will  be  sufficient  to 
prevent  the  crushing  of  the  timber.  In  light  trusses  the  king  post  e 
is  often  made  of  wood  and  is  carried  up  between  the  principal  rafters 
so  that  these  members  bear  against  it  on  each  side.  If  this  construc- 
tion is  adopted  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  post  is  a  tension 
member,  and  is  held  up  by  the  principal  rafters,  and  these  pieces 
must  be  mortised  into  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  accomplish  this  result. 
There  are  a  great  many  different  ways  of  arranging  the  details 
for  wooden  trusses,  each  case  usually  requiring  details  peculiar  to 
itself  and  unlike  those  for  any  other  case.  There  are,  therefore, 
no  hard  and  fast  rules  which  can  be  laid  down  to  ofovern  the  de- 
sign  of  these  connections.  A  perfect  understanding  of  the  action 
of  each  piece  and  its  relation  to  all  the  other  pieces  is  the  only 
thing  which  will  insure  an  economical  and  appropriate  desicrn. 
The  aim  should  always  be  to  arrange  the  details  so  that  there  will 
be  as  little  cutting  of  the  pieces  as  possible,  and  so  that  the  stresses 
may  pass  from  one  to  the  other  without  over- straining  any  part  of 
the  work. 


137 


128 


CARPEXTKY 


Towers  and  Steeples.  Towers  are  ;i  very  common  feature  in 
building  construction,  ranging  in  size  from  the  small  cupola  seen 
almost  invariably  on  barns  and  stables,  to  the  high  tapering  spire 
which  is  the  distinguishing  mark  of  the  country  church. 

They  have  roofs  of  various  shapes,  some  in  the  form  of  pyra- 
mids, with  four,  eight,  or  twelve  sides,  some  of  conical  form,  and 
others  bell -shaped  or  having  a  slightly  concave  surface. 

The  construction  of  all  these  forms  of  towers  is  much  the 
same,  consisting  of   an   arrangement  of   posts  and  braces  which 

becomes  more  elaborate  as  the 
tower  or  steeple  becomes  larger. 
The  bracing  is  the  most  impor- 
tant consideration,  because  the 
towers  will  be  exposed  to  the  full 
force  of  the  wind  and  must  be 
able  to  stand  the  great  strain  to 
which  they  are  subjected. 

Fig.  205  shows  a  section 
through  the  frame  of  a  simple 
cupola.  It  has  posts  a  a  at  each 
corner,  which  rest  at  the  bottom 
on  the  sills  h  h.  Tiie  sills  are 
supported  on  extra  heavy  collar 
beams  r,  which  are  very  securely 
S])iked  to  the  rafters  of  the  main 
roof  III  ill.  The  corner  posts  ex- 
tend clear  up  to  the  uuiin  plate 
(7  <:/,  which  supports  tlie  rafters  c  e  of  the  cu])ola.  There  are  hij)  raft- 
ers at  the  corner  of  the  roof,  which  bear  at  the  top  against  a  j)iece 
of  scantling /*  placed  in  the  center  of  the  roof.  This  scantling 
extends  a])Ove  the  roof  surface  far  enouu;h  to  receive  some  kind 
of  metal  finial  which  forms  the  finish  at  the  extreme  top  of  the 
cupola;  and  at  the  bottom  it  is  firmly  fastened  to  the  tie  (j  which 
is  cut  ill  between  the  ])lates.  The  braces  //  Ji  h  //  stilf'en  the  frames 
against  the  wind,  (lirts  ,*  7  are  cut  in  l)etween  the  corner  posts 
and  form  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  slat  frame  opening  R,  besides 
tieing  the  posts  together.  The  sides  of  the  opening  for  the  slat 
frame  are  formed  by  the  vertical   studs  I'  k.     The   rafters  of   the 


Fig  205.    Frame  for  Cupola. 


138 


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FIREPLACE  IN  DINING  ROOM  OF  HOUSE  FOR  MR.  C.  M.  THOMPSON,  CAMBRIDGE,  MASS. 

Cram,  Goodhue  &  Ferguson,  Architects,  Boston  and  New  York. 


CARPENTRY 


129 


main  roof  in  in  are  placed  close  up  against  tlie  corner  posts  on  the 
outside,  and  the  posts  may  be  spiked  to  them.  The  pieces  o  o 
are  of  plank  two  inches  thick,  and  are  simply  furring  pieces  placed 
at  intervals  of  a  foot  and  a  half  to  two  feet  all  around  the  cupola 
to  give. the  desired  shai:)e  to  the  bottom  part.  The  size  of  the 
pieces  will  de^oend  upon  the  size  of  the  cupola.  The  posts  may  be 
four  by  four  inches  or  six  by  six  inches,  and  the  braces,  girts  and 
intermediate  studding  may  be  three  by  four  inches  or  four  by  six 
inches. 

Other  towers  are  framed  in  a  manner  SMuilar  to  that  described 
for  cupolas.     There  is  always  a  base  or  drum,  Mith  posts  at  the 
corners  and  with  the  walls  filled 
in  with  studding,  which  supports 
a  plate  at  the  top.     The  rafters 
forming  the  tower  roof  rest  at 
the  foot  on  this  plate,  and  at  the 
top  they  bear  against  a  piece  of 
scantling  which  is  carried  down 
into  the  body  of  the  tower  for  a 
considerable  distance  and  is  there 
fastened  to  a  tie  passing  betvreen 
rafters  on  opposite  sides.     This 
is  shown  in  Fig,  206.     The  tie 
a  is  securely  nailed  to  the  rafters 
at  each  end,  and  to  the  scantlincr 
in  the  middle.     The  scantling  is 
cut  so  as  to  have  as'  many  faces  as  the  roof  has  sides,  four  for  a 
square  hip  roof,  eight  for  an  octagon  roof,  and  so  on.     Each  face 
receives  one  of  the  hip  rafters  and  the  intermediate  rafters  are 
framed  in  between  them.     If  the  roof  is  conical  or  bell-shaped,  as 
shown  in  the  figure,  the  scantling  at  the  top  may  be  cylindrical 
in  form.     Although  the  roof  shown  is  bell-shaped,  the  rafters  are 
not  cut  to  fit   the  curve.     They  are  made  straight  and  are  filled 
out  by  furring  pieces  l  1>.     Pieces  of  plank  c  c  are  cut  in  between 
the  furring  pieces,  as  shown,  so  as  to  give  a  nailing  for  the  board- 
ing, and  they  are  cut  to  the  shape  of  segments  of  circles,  so  as  to 
form  complete  circles  around  the  tower  when  they  have  been  put 
in  place.     If  a  tower  of  this  shape  is  to  be  built,  leaving  a  number  of 


Fig.  306.    Frame  for  Tower. 


139 


130 


CARPENTRY 


faces  and  hips,  the  curve  of  the  hip  rafters  will  not  be  the  same  as 
the  curve  shown  by  a  section  through  one  of  the  faces  of  the  tower. 
In  order  to  find  the  true  curve  for  the  hip  rafters  the  same  method 
is  followed  as  was  explained  for  the  hip  rafter  in  an  ogee  roof  over 
a  bay  window,  using  the  principle  that  any  line  drawn  in  the  roof 
surface  parallel  to  the  plate  is  horizontal  throughout  its  length. 
J>V  this  means  any  number  of  points  in  the  curve  of  the  hip  I'after 
may  be  obtained  and  the  curve  for  the  hip  may  be  drawn  through 
them.     Thus  a  pattern  for  the  hip  rafter  may  be  obtained. 

Fig.  207  shows  the  method 
of  framing  a  cluiivli  spire,  or 
other  high  tapering  tower.  The 
drum  A  is  square  and  is  sup- 
ported by  the  posts  a  a^  one  at 
each  corner,  which  rest  on  the 
sills  J>  1).  The  sills  are  supported 
by  the  roof  trusses  of  the  main 
roof.  The  corner  posts  extend 
the  full  height  of  the  drum  and 
are  strongly  braced  in  all  four 
faces,  with  intermediate  vertical 
studding  c  e  between  them  to 
form  the  framework  for  these 
faces.  The  spire  itself  may  rest 
on  top  of  this  square  drum  or 
there  may  be  another  eight-  or 
twelve-sided  drum  constructed 
on  top  of  the  first  on  which  the 
spire  may  rest.  This  depends  upon  the  design  of  the  spire.  The 
]iip  rafters  d  d  d  d  do  not  rest  directly  on  top  of  the  drum,  how- 
ever, as  this  arrangement  would  not  give  sutticient  anchorage  for 
the  spire.  They  are  made  so  as  to  pass  close  inside  the  plate  e  at 
the  top  of  the  drum  and  are  securely  bolted  to  this  plate  with  strong 
bolts.  This  is  shown  at  II  which  is  a  ])lan  of  the  top  of  the  drum, 
showing  the  hip  rafters  in  place.  The  plate  is  shown  at  ./^"and  the 
hi  J)  rafters  at  <j.  The  rafters  extend  down  into  the  body  of  the 
drum  as  far  as  the  girt  h  (shown  in  the  elevation)  to  which  they 
are  again   securely  spiked  or  bolted,  being  cut  out  at  the  foot  so 


Fig.  2n7.    Frame  foi*  Clnireh  Spire. 


140 


CAKFENTKY  y^^ 


as  to  fit  against  the  girt.      In  this  way  a  strong  anchorage  for  the 
spire  is  obtained. 

Horizontal  pieces  /  /  /  /  are  cut  in  between  the  hip  rafters  at 

intervals  throughout  the  height  of  the  spire,  and  braces  /•  /■  halved 

together  at  the  center  where  they  cross  each  other  are  firmly  nailed 

to  the  rafters  at  each  end.     These   braces  are  needed  only  in  lofty 

spires,  which  are  likely  to  be  exposed  to  high  winds.     At  tlie  top 

the  hip  rafters  bear  against  a  piece  of  scantling  ;//  the  same  as  in 

the  other  towers.     If  a  conical  spire  is  called  for  in  the  design. 

the  horizontal  pieces  /  /  /  must  be  cut  to  the  shape  of  segments'^of 

circles,  and  in  this  case  the  rafters  are  no  longer  hip  rafters.     The 

horizontal    pieces  i  i  will  receive  the  boarding  which  will  form  a 

smooth  conical  surface. 

The  spire  above  the  drum  is  usually  framed  on  the  ground 
before  being  raised  to  its  final  position.  It  may  then  be"raised 
part  way  and  supported  by  temporary  staging  while  the  top  is 
finished  and  painted,  after  which  it  may  be  placed  in  position  on 
top  of  the  drum. 

Domes.  Timber  domes  have  been  built  over  many  famous 
buildings,  among  which  jjiay  be  mentioned  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  at 
London,  and  the  Hotel  des  Invalides  at  Paris.  While  these  struc- 
tures are  domical  in  shape  they  are  not,  strictly  speaking,  domes, 
because  they  do  not  depend  for  support  upon  the  same  "priuciplJ 
which  is  employed  in  the  construction  of  masonry  domes.  They 
are,  correctly  speaking,  arrangements  of  trusses  of  "such  a  shape  as 
to  give  the  required  domical  form  to  the  exterior  of  the  roof. 

Fig.  208  shows  such  a  truss  supported  at  either  end  on  a 
masonry  wall  as  shown.  Fig.  209,  which  is  a  plan  of  the  framing 
of  this  roof,  shows  how  the  trusses  or  hmis  may  be  arraiiaed"! 
There  are  two  complete  bents,  a  h  and  c  d,  like  the  one  shown  in 
the  elevation,  Fig.  208,  which  intersect  each  other  at  the  center. 
The  king  post  a,  in  the  elevation,  is  common  to  both  bents,  and 
the  tie  beams  h  are  halved  together  where  they  cross.  These  two 
bents  divide  the  roof  surface  into  four  quarters  which  are  filled  in 
by  shorter  ribs,  as  indicated  in  the  plan.  Fig.  209.  The  posts  e  in 
Fig.  208  carry  all  the  weight  of  the  roof  to  the  walls  and  are  braced 
by  means  of  the  pieces  d.  The  rounded  shape  is  given  to  the 
exterior  and  interior  of  the  bent  by  pieces  of  plank  bent  into  posi- 


141 


132 


CAKPENTRY 


tion  us  shown.  The  whole  is  covered  with  boarding  which  is  cut 
to  a  speciaLphape  so  that  it  can  be  bent  into  place.  The  methods 
of  applying  the  boarding  to  domical  roofs  will  be  explained  in  con- 
nection with  other  rough  boarding. 


Fig.  208.    Frame  for  Dome. 


Fig.  209.    Plan  of  Dome 
Framing. 


The  arrangement  of  trusses  or  bents  described  above  is  suit- 
able for  a  plain  domical  roof  without  a  lantern  or  cupola  on  top, 
but  very  frequently  this  feature  is  present  in  the  design,  and  the 
roof  must  be  framed  to  allow  for  it.  There  are  several  different 
ways  of  arranging  the  trusses  so  as  to  leave  an  opening  in  the 
center  of  the  roof  for  the  lantern.     Fig.  210  shows  a  very  good 


Fig.  210.    Plan  of  Dome  Framing 
with  Central  Opening. 


Fig.  211.    Plan  of  Dome 
Framing  Avith  Opening. 


arrangement.  Four  trusses,  a  a  a  a^  span  the  entire  distance 
between  the  walls,  and  are  placed  as  shown  in  the  figure,  so  as  to 
leave  the  opening  B  in  the  center.      Four  half  trusses  c  c  c  c  are 


142 


CARPENTRY 


133 


Fig.  312.     Seetiou  of 
Diiine  Framinp. 


inserted    between   them,  as  shown,  and  eight  shorter  ribs  d  d  are 
employed  to  fill  in  the  rest  of  the  space.  % 

Fig,  211  shows  another  arrangement,  providing  for  a  lantern 
at  the  center.  There  are* a  number  of  ribs,  a  a  a,  twelve  in  the 
figure,  all  radiating  from  the  center  where 
there  is  a  circular  opening  for  the  lantern  or 
cupola.  In  Fig.  212  is  shown  a  section 
through  a  domical  roof  framed  in  this  wav, 
showing  an  elevation  of  one  of  the  ribs.  The 
rib  is  so  constructed  as  to  be  entirely  con- 
tained in  the  restricted  space  between  the 
lines  of  the  exterior  and  interior  of  the  roof. 

Pendentives.  In  the  preceding  paragraphs  we  have  con- 
sidered the  subject  of  domical  roofs  covering  buildings  of  circular 
plan,  which  is  the  simplest  possible  case,  but  unfortunately  not  the 
most  usual  one.  It  very  often  happens  that  a  domical  roof  must 
be  erected  over  a  building  which  is  square  or  rectangular  in  plan, 
in  which  case  a  new  and  difficult  problem  must  be  considered, 
namely,  that  of  the  pendentives.  A  horizontal  section  taken 
through  a  dome  must  in  every  case  show  a  circle  or  possibly  an 
^  .  ellipse.     If.  then,  we  consider  the  hori- 

zontal section  cut  from  a  domical  roof  by 
the  plane  of  the  top  of  the  wall,  it  must 
usually  be  a  circle  and  cannot  exactly 
coincide  with  the  section  cut  from  the 
wall  of  the  building  by  the  same  plane, 
unless  the  building  is  circular  in  plan. 
.  This  is  shown  in  Fig.  213  in  which  A  B 
C  D  represents  the  section  cut  from  the 
wall  of  the  building  by  a  horizontal 
plane,  and  the  circle  E  F  G  H  repre- 
sents the  section  which  would  be  cut  from  a  domical  roof  covering 
the  building  if  the  framing  for  the  dome  were  carried  down  to  meet 
this  plane  all  the  way  around. 

In  order  to  cover  every  part  of  the  building,  the  dome  must 
be  large  enough  to  include  the  corners,  and  if  made  sufficiently 
large  for  this  it  must  overhang  the  side  walls  of  the  building,  by 
an  amount  A  E  B  on  each  side,  if  the  framing  is  carried  down  to 


1 


_-  .A- 


Fig.  213. 


Dome  on  Rectangular 
Walls. 


148 


134 


CARPENTRY 


the  same  liorizontal  plane  all  the  way  around.  TTorizontal  sections 
taken  throil|jli  the  (k)ine  at  intervals  throughout  its  height,  how- 
ever, show  smaller  and  smaller  circles  as  they  are  taken  nearer  and 
nearer  to  the  top  of  the  dome.  Some  one  of  these  sections  will 
cut  out  from  the  dome  a  circle,  which  will  appear  in  plan  as  thouoh 
it  were  inscribed  in  the  square  formed  by  the  walls  of  the  build- 
inof.  Such  a  circle  is  shown  at  I  J  K  L  in  Fig;.  213.  A  dome 
l)uilt  up  with  this  circle  as  a  base  would  not  cover  the  corners  of 
the  building,  so  that  the  triangular  spaces  like  AIL  would  be 
kept  open.  These  triangular  spaces,  or  rather  the  coverings  tDver 
them,  are  called  the  pendentives.  Fig.  214  shows  in  perspective 
the  outline  of  four  pendentives  E  D  H,  II  C  G,  etc. 


Fig.  214.    Pendentives. 

We  have  seen  that  a  dome  built  up  on  the  circumscribed 
circle  as  a  base  is  too  large,  while  a  dome  built  upcui  the  inscribed 
circle  is  too  small  and  will  not  completely  cover  the  building.  To 
overcome  this  difficulty  it  is  customary  to  erect  a  dome  on  the 
smaller  or  inscribed  circle  as  a  base,  and  to  extend  the  ribs  so  as 
to  till  up  the  corners  and  form  a  framework  for  the  pendentives. 
This  is  shown  in  Fig.  215  which  is  a  plan  of  the  framework  for  a 
domical  roof.  The  ribs  will  be  of  different  lengths  and  will  inter- 
sect  the  inside  face  of  the  wall  at  different  heights,  because  as  they 
are  extended  outward  they  must  also  be  extended  downward.  Each 
one  will  l)e  curved  if  the  dome  is  spherical,  and  straight  if  the 
dome  is  conical.  The  upper  ends  of  the  ribs  bear  against  the 
curb  A  leaving  a  circular  opening  for  a  lantern  or  cupola.     The 


144 


CARPENTRY 


135 


lower  ends  may  be  supported  on  a  inasoury  wall,  or  iiiay  rest  on 
curved  wooden  plates,  as  shown  in  Fig.  216.  This  is  an  elevation 
of  a  conical  dome  and  shows  the  straight  ribs  a  h,  c  d,  etc. 

Fig.  217  shows  an  elevation  of  a  spherical  dome  which  has 
curved  ribs,  a  h,  e  d,  etc.,  as  shown.     Each  of  these  ribs  must  be 


Fig.  215.    Plan  of  Frame 
for  Domical  Koof. 


Fig.  210,  Klevalion  of 
Conical  Dome. 


l)ent  or  shaped  to  the  segment  of  a  circle,  in  order  that  their  edges 
may  lie  in  a  spherical  surface. 

If  the  design  calls  only  for  a  domical  ceiling  and  the  exterior 
may  be  of  some  other  form,  then  only  the  inside  edges  of  the  ribs 
need  be  dressed  to  correspond  with  a  spherical  or  conical  surface, 
in  order  that  they  may  receive  the  lathing  or  furring,  and  the  out- 
side may  be  left  rough  and  a  false  roof  of  any  desired  shape  may 
be  built.  If  the  exterior  must  be  of  dom- 
ical form  while  on  the  interior  there  is  a 
suspended  or  false  ceiling  of  some  kind, 
then  only  the  outside  edges  of  the  ribs 
must  lie  in  the  conical  or  spherical  surface, 
so  as  to  receive  the  roof  boarding,  while 
the  inside  edges  may  be  left  rough  or 
shaped  to  any  other  form.  If  both  the  ex- 
terior and  interior  must  be  domical,  then 


both  the  inside  and  outside  edges  of  the 


Fig.  21".    Elevation  of 
Spherical  Dome. 


ribs  must  be  dressed  so  as  to  lie  in  the 
domical  surface. 

Conical  domes  are  very  uncommon,  but  they  are  sometimes 
used.  A  conical  dome  is  much  easier  to  frame  than  a  spherical 
dome  because  the  ribs  are  straight.    The  shape  of  the  curved  plate 


145 


130  CAKPENTRY 


which  supports  the  lower  ends  of  the  ribs  may  be  easily  deter- 
mined, since  it  must  conform  to  the  line  of  intersection  between 
the  conical  or  spherical  surface  of  the  dome,  and  the  plane  of  the 
face  of  the  wall. 

Niches.  Kiches  are  of  common  occurrence  in  buildinu;  work, 
especially  in  churches,  halls  and  other  important  structures.  Some- 
times they  are  simply  recesses  in  the  wall  with  straight  corners 
and  a  square  head,  but  more  often  they  are  semicircular  in  form, 
with  spherical  heads  in  which  case  the  framing  becomes  a  matter 
of  some  difficulty.  The  framing  of  the  wall  for  a  semicircular 
niche  is  the  easiest  part  of  the  work,  since  all  the  ])ieces  may  be 
straio-ht,  but  for  the  framing  of  the  head  the  ribs  must  be  bent  or 
shaped  to  conform  to  the  surface  of  a  sphere. 

Fig.  218  shows  in  j)lan  the  way  in  which  the  vertical  stud- 
dintJ-  of  the  walls  must  be  T)laced.  The  inside  edges  must  lie  in  a 
cylindrical    surface,  and  will   receive  the  lathing  and  plastering. 

There  must  be  a  curved  sole  piece  for 
them  to  rest  upon  at  the  bottom  and  a 
cap  at  the  top.  The  cap  is  shown  at 
A  B  in  Fig.  219,  which  is  an  elevation 
of  the  (">Y/^7//;?</ or  framing  for  the  niche. 
This  figure  shows  how  the  ribs  for  the 

Fig.  218.    Plan  of  Vertical  i        i      e    ^^  •   i  i.iii.rri 

suiciding  for  Niche.  head  OE  the  uiche  must  be  bent.      Ihe 

ribs  and  vertical  studs  must  be  spaced 
not  farther  than  twelve  inches  apart,  center  to  center. 

The  form  of  niche  described  above  is  the  most  common  one 
for  large  niches  intended  to  hold  full  size  casts  or  other  pieces  of 
statuary,  but  smaller  ones  for  holding  busts  and  vases  are  quite 
common.  These  are  often  made  in  the  form  of  a  quarter  sphere 
or  some  smaller  segment  of  a  sphere,  with  a  flat  base  or  floor  and 
a  spherical  head,  as  is  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  220.  They  are 
framed  with  curved  ribs  in  the  same  way  as  described  above,  and 
finished  with  lathing  and  plastering. 

Vaults  and  Groins.  Although  vaulted  roofs  are  an  outgrowth 
of  masonry  construction,  and  are  almost  always  built  of  l)rick  or 
stone,  they  are  occasionally  of  timlter,  and  in  any  case  a  timber 
centering  must  be  built  for  them.  A  vault  mav  be  described  as 
the  surface  generated  by  a  curved  line  as  the  line  moves  through 


lie 


CARPENTRY 


137 


space,  and  in  accordance  with  this  definition  there  are  vaults  of  all 
kinds,  semicircular  or  barrel  vaults,  elliptical  vaults,  conical  vaults, 
and  many  others. 


Fiir.  219.    Elevaiion  of  Cradling 
for  Niche. 


Fig.  320.     Section  of 
Quarter-Sphere 
Niche. 


Ill  Fig.  221  is  shown  in  outline  a  simple  semicircular  or 
harrel  vault,  known  as  well  by  the  name  eylhulrical  vcudt.  The 
point  A  where  the  straight  vertical  wall  ends  and  the  curved  sur- 
face begins  is  called  the  sjrr'tnging  point.  The  point  B  is  the 
crown  of  the  vault.  The  distance  between  the  springing  points 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  vault  is  the  sjxni,  and  the  vertical  distance 
between  the  springing  point  and  the  crown  B  is  the  rise. 

It  may  easily  be  seen  how  a  barrel 
vault,  or  a  vault  of  any  kind,  may  be  framed, 
with  curved  ribs  spaced  from  one  foot  to 
eighteen  inches  apart  on  centers,  and  fol- 
lowing the  outline  of  a  section  of  the  vault. 
If  the  framework  is  intended  to  be  perma- 
nent and  to  form  the  bodv  of  the  vault  itself, 
then  the  inner  edges  of  the  ribs  must  lie  in 
the  surface  of  the  vault  and  must  be  cov- 
ered with  lathing  and  plastering.  If  only  a  centering  is  being 
built,  on  which  it  is  intended  that  a  masonry  vault  shall  be  sup- 
ported temporarily,  then  the  outer  edges  of  the  ribs  must  conform 
to  the  vaulted  surface  and  must  be  covered  with  rough  boarding 
to  receive  the  masonry. 


Fig.  221.    Barrel  Vault. 


147 


138 


CARPENTRY 


AVHu'ii  two  vaults  intersect  each  other,  as  in  the  case  of  a  main 
vault,  and  tlie  vault  over  a  transept,  the  ceilino;  at  the  place  where 
vaults  come  together  is  said  to  be  groined.  The  two  vaults  may 
be  of  the  same  height  or  of  different  heights.  If  they  are  of  dif- 
ferent heicrhts  the  intersection  is  known  as  a  Welsh  groin.  "Welsh 
groins  are  of  common  occurrence  in  masonry  construction,  but  in 
carpentry  work  the  vaults  are  almost  always  made  equal  in  height 
and  often  they  are  of  equal  span  as  well. 

The  framework  for  each  vault  is  composed  of  ribs  spaced 
comparatively  close  together,  and  resting  on  the  side  walls  at  the 
springing  line.  "When,  however,  the  two  vaults  intersect  each 
other,  the  side  walls  must  stop  at  the  points  wdiere  they  meet,  and 
a   S(puu-e  or  rectangular  area  is  left  which   has  no  vertical  walls 


Fig.  322.    Plan  of  Cradling  for 
Groined  Ceiling. 


Fig.  223.    Cradling  for  Groined 
Ceiling. 


around  it.  The  covering  for  this  area  must  be  supported  at  the 
four  corner  points  in  which  the  side  walls  intersect.  This  is  shown 
in  plan  in  Fig.  222  where  ah  c  d  are  the  points  of  intersection  of 
the  walls  of  the  vaults.  The  method  of  covering  the  area  com- 
mon  to  both  vaults  is  also  shown  in  the  figure.  Diagonal  ribs  a  d 
and  c  h  are  put  in  place  so  as  to  span  the  distance  from  corner  to 
corner  and  these  form  the  basis  for  the  rest  of  the  framing.  They 
must  be  bent  to  such  a  shape  that  they  will  coincide  exactly  with 
the  line  of  intersection  of  the  two  vaulted  services.  The  ribs 
which  form  the  framing  for  the  groined  ceiling  over  the  area  are 
supported  on  the  diagonal  ribs  as  shown  in  the  figure.  They  are 
arranged  symmetrically  with  respect  to  the  center,  and  are  bent  or 
shaped  to  the  form  of  segments  of  circles  or  ellipses. 


148 


CARPENTRY 


139 


Fig.  222  shows  one  method  of  forming  the  cradling  for  a 
groined  ceiling,  but  there  is  another  which  is  also  in  common  use. 
This  is  shown  in  Fig.  223.  There  are  four  curved  ribs  a  J,  h  r7,  c  (7, 
and  c  a  which  span  the  distances  from  corner  to  corner  around  the 
space  to  be  covered.  The  diagonal  ribs  a  d  and  c  h  are  also 
employed  as  in  the  first  method.  Straight  horizontal  purlins  are 
supported  on  these  ribs,  running  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the 
vaults,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  They  are  spaced  about  sixteen 
inches  apart  and  form  the  framework  for  the  ceiling. 

The  only  difficult  problem  in  connection  with  groined  ceilings 
is  to  find  the  shape  of  the  diagonal  rib.  This  rib,  as  has  been  ex- 
plained above,  must  coincide  with  the  line  of  intersection  of  the  vaiilts. 
The  problem,  then,  is  to  find  the  true  shape  of  the  diao-onal  rib. 

Let  us  consider  the  two  vaults 
shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  224.  They 
are  not  of  the  same  span,  but  they 
will  be  of  the  same  height  if  we 
wish  to  have  a  common  groin  and 
not  a  Welsh  crroin :  so  if  one  is  semi- 
circular  the  other  must  be  ellipti- 
cal. Elevations  of  ribs  in  each 
vault  are  shown  at  A  and  B  and 
the  diagonal  ribs  are  shown  in  plan 
at  a  c  and  h  <1.  It  is  easy  to  find 
the  plan  of  these  ribs    because  they 

must  pass  from  corner  to  corner  diagonally.  To  find  the  elevation 
we  must  use  the  same  principle  that  was  employed  in  finding  the 
position  of  the  valley  rafter  and  the  shape  of  the  curved  hip  rafter 
for  an  ogee  roof,  namely,  any  line  drawn  in  the  roof  or  ceiling 
surface  parallel  to  the  plate  or  side  walls,  must  be  horizontal,  and 
all  points  in  it  must  be  at  the  same  elevation. 

We  start  with  the  assumption  that  one  of  the  vaults  is  semi- 
circular, as  shown  in  elevation  at  A,  Fig.  224.  Taking  any  line 
in  the  vaulted  surface,  shown  in  plan,  as  the  line  «j?  ^,  we  produce 
it  until  it  intersects  the  plan  of  the  diagonal  rib  ((  c  at  the 
point  o.  This  point  must  be  the  plan  of  one  point  in  the  line  of 
intersection  of  the  vaulted  surfaces. 


Fig.  224 


Plan  of  Intersecting  Vaults. 


149 


140  CARPENTRY 


The  elevation  of  the  point  o  above  the  springing  line  of  the 
vaults  is  shown  by  the  distance  j)  s,  since  the  line  (i  j)  o  is  exactly 
horizontal  throughont.  This  distance  is  laid  off  at  ^  /with  the 
line  g  e  h  representing  the  horizontal  plane  which  contains  the 
springing  lines  of  the  vaults.  The  point  A  is  the  point  from  which 
the  diagonal  rib  starts.  The  point  /*,  as  we  have  seen  is  another 
point  in  the  curve,  and  w^e  can  by  a  similar  process  locate  as  many 
points  as  we  need.  This  will  enable  us  to  draw  the  complete 
curve  (J  f  h  of  the  line  in  which  the  vaults  intersect,  and  to  which 
the  diagonal  rib  must  conform. 

By  continuing  the  line  from  the  point  <>  at  right  angles  to  its 
Tormer  direction  and  parallel  to  the  wall  line  we  may  obtain  the 
point  /'  which  is  a  plan  of  one  point  in  the  surface  of  the  elliptical 
vault.  The  elevation  of  this  point  also  above  the  springing  lines 
must  be  the  same  as  for  the  point  s  and  may  be  laid  off,  as  shown 
at  Z'  7^/.  By  finding  other  points  in  a  similar  way  the  curve  n  111  r 
of  the  elliptical  vault  may  be  readily  determined. 


150 


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STAIR-BUILDING 


Introducton-.  In  the  following  instructions  in  the  art  of  Stair^ 
building,  it  is  the  intention  to  adhere  closely  to  the  practical  phases 
of  the  subject,  and  to  present  only  such  matter  as  will  directly  aid 
the  student  in  acquiring  a  practical  masten-  of  the  art. 

Stair-building,  though  one  of  the  most  important  subjects  con- 
nected with  the  art  of  building,  is  probably  the  subject  least  under- 
stood by  designers  and  by  workmen  generally.  In  but  few  of  the 
plans  that  leave  the  offices  of  Architects,  are  the  stairs  properly  laid 
down;  and  many  of  the  books  that  have  been  sent  out  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  instruction  in  the  art  of  building,  have  this  common  defect- 
that  the  body  of  the  stairs  is  laid  down  imperfectly,  and  therefore 
presents  great  difficulties  in  the  construction  of  the  rail. 

The  stairs  are  an  important  feature  of  a  building.  On  entering 
a  house  they  are  usually  the  first  object  to  meet  the  eye  and  claim 
the  attention.  If  one  sees  an  ugly  staircase,  it  will,  in  a  measure, 
condemn  the  whole  house,  for  the  first  impression  produced  will 
hardly  afterwards  be  totally  eradicated  by  commendable  features 
that  may  be  noted  elsewhere  in  the  building.  It  is  extremely  important, 
therefore,  that  both  designer  and  workman  shall  see  that  staircases 
are  properly  laid  out. 

Stairways  should  be  commodious  to  ascend — inviting  people, 
as  it  were,  to  go  up.  When  winders  are  used,  they  should  extend 
past  the  spring  line  of  the  cylinder,  so  as  to  give  proper  \ndth  at 
the  narrow  end  -(see  Fig.  72)  and  bring  the  rail  there  as  nearly  as 
possible  to  the  same  pitch  or  slant  as  the  rail  over  the  square  steps. 
When  the  hall  is  of  sufficient  width,  the  stairway  should  not  be  less 
tlian  four  feet  wide,  so  that  two  people  can  conveniently  pass  each 
other  thereon.  The  height  of  riser  and  width  of  tread  are  governed 
by  the  staircase,  which  is  the  space  allowed  for  the  stairway;  but, 
as  a  general  rule,  the  tread  should  not  be  less  than  nine  inches  wade, 
and  the  riser  should  not  be  over  eight  inches  high.    Seven-inch  riser 


153 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Fig.  1. 


Illustrating  Rise.  Kun,  and 
Pitch. 


and  eleven-inch  tread  will  make  an  easy  stepping  stairway.  If  you 
increase  the  width  of  the  tread,  you  must  reduce  the  height  of  the  riser. 
The  tread  and  riser  together  should  not  be  over  eighteen  inches, 
and  not  less  than  seventeen  inches.  These  dimensions,  however, 
cannot  always  be  adhered  to,  as  conditions  will  often  compel  a  devia- 
tion from  the  rule;  for  instance,  in  large  buildings,  such  as  hotels, 
railway  depots,  or  other  public  buildings,  treads  are  often  made  18 

inches  wide,  having  risers  of  from 
2h  inches  to  5  inches  depth. 

Definitions.  Before  pro- 
ceeding further  with  the  subject, 
it  is  essential  that  the  student 
make  himself  familiar  with  a  few 
of  the  terms  used  in  stair-building. 
The  term  rise  and  run  is 
often  used,  and  indicates  certain 
dimensions  of  the  stairway.  Fig. 
1  will  illustrate  exactly  what  is 
meant;  the  line  ^  5  shows  the  nm,  or  the  length  over  the  floor  the 
stairs  will  occupy.  From  5  to  C  is  the  rise,  or  the  total  height  from 
iop  of  lower  floor  to  top  of  upper  floor.*  The  line  D  is  the  pitch  or 
line  of  nosings,  showing  the  angle  of  inclination  of  the  stairs.  On 
the  three  lines  shown — the  rim,  the  rise,  and  the  pitch — depends 
the  whole  system  of  stair-building. 

The  bochj  or  staircase  is  the  room  or  space  in  which  the  stairway 
is  contained.  This  may  be  a  space  including  the  width  and  length 
of  the  stairway  only,  in  which  case  it  is  called  a  close  stairway,  no  rail 
or  baluster  being  necessary.  Or  the  stairway  may  be  in  a  large 
apartment,  such  as  a  passage  or  hall,  or  even  in  a  large  room,  openings 
being  left  in  the  upper  floors  so  as  to  allow  road  room  for  persons  on 
the  stairway,  and  to  furnish  communication  between  the  stairways 
and  the  different  stories  of  the  building.  In  such  cases  we  have  what 
are  known  as  open  stairivays,  from  the  fact  that  they  are  not  closed 
on  both  sides,  the  steps  showing  their  ends  at  one  side,  while  on  the 
other  side  they  are  generally  placed  against  the  wall. 

Sometimes  stairways  are  left  open  on  both  sides,  a  practice  not 

♦Note.— The  measure  for  the  rise  of  a  stairway  must  always  be  taken  from  the  top 
of  one  floor  to  the  top  of  the  next. 


154 


STAIR-BUILDING 


uncommon  in  hotels,  public  halls,  and  steamships.  When  such  stairs 
are  employed,  the  openings  in  the  upper  floor  should  be  well  trimmed 
with  joists  or  beams  somewhat  stronger  than  the  ordinary  joists  used 
in  the  same  floor,  as  will  be  explained  further  on. 

Tread.  This  is  the  horizontal,  upper  surface  of  the  step,  upon 
which  the  foot  is  placed.  In  other  words,  it  is  the  piece  of  material 
that  forms  the  step,  and  is  generally  from  Ij  to  3  inches  thick,  and 
made  of  a  width  and  length  to  suit  the  position  for  which  it  is  intended. 
In  small  houses,  the  treads  are  usually  made  of  |-inch  stuff. 

Riser.  This  is  the  vertical  height  of  the  step.  The  riser  is  gen- 
erally made  of  thinner  stuff  than  the  tread,  and,  as  a  rule,  is  not  so 
heavy.  Its  duty  is  to  connect  the  treads  together,  and  to  give  the 
stairs  strength  and  soliditv. 

Rise  and  Run.  This  term,  as  already  explained,  is  used  to  indi- 
cate the  horizontal  and  vertical  dimensions  of  the  stairway,  the  rise 
meaning  the  height  from  the  top  of  the  lower  floor  to  the  top  of  the 
second  floor;  and  the  run  meaning  the  horizontal  distance  from  the 
face  of  the  first  riser  to  the  face  of  the  last  or  top  riser,  or,  in  other 
words,  the  distance  between  the  face  of  the  first  riser  and  the  point 
where  a  plumb  line  from  the  face  of  the  top  riser  would  strike  the  floor. 
It  is,  in  fact,  simply  the  distance  that  the  treads  would  make  if  put 
side  by  side  and  measured  together — without,  of  course,  taking  in 
the  nosings. 

Suppose  there  are  fifteen  treads,  each  being  11  inches  wide; 
this  would  make  a  run  of  15  X  11  =  165  inches  =  13  feet  9  inches. 
Sometimes  this  distance  is  called  the  going  of  the  stair ;  this,  however, 
is  an  English  term,  seldom  used  in  America,  and  when  used,  refers 
as  frec^uently  to  the  length  of  the  single  tread  as  it  does  to  the  run  of 
the  stairway. 

String-Board.  This  is  the  board  forming  the  side  of  the  stairway, 
connecting  with,  and  supporting  the  ends  of  the  steps.  AMiere  the 
steps  are  housed,  or  grooved  into  the  board,  it  is  known  by  the  term 
housed  string;  and  when  it  is  cut  through  for  the  tread  to  rest  upon, 
and  is  mitered  to  the  riser,  it  is  known  by  the  term  cut  and  mitered 
string.  The  dimensions  of  the  lumber  generally  used  for  the  purpose 
in  practical  work,  are  9h  inches  width  and  |  inch  thickness.  In  the 
first-class  stair^'ays  the  thickness  is  usually  1|^  inches,  for  both  front 


and  wall  strings. 


155 


STAIR-BUILDING 


risers  and  treads  together 


Fig.  2  shows  the  manner  in  which  most  stair-builders  put  their 

T  and  T  show  the  treads;  R  and  R,  the 
risers;  S  and  S,  the  string;  0  and  0,  the 
cove  mouldings  under  the  nosings  A"  and 
A .  B  and  B  show  the  blocks  that  hold 
the  treads  and  risers  together;  these 
l)locks  should  be  from  4  to  (5  inches 
long,  and  made  of  very  dry  wood ;  their 
section  may  be  from  1  to  2  inches  square. 
On  a  tread  3  feet  long,  three  of  these 
blocks  should  be  used  at  about  equal 
distances  apart,  putting  the  two  outside 
ones  about  6  inches  from  the  strings. 
They  are  glued  up  tight  into  the  angle. 
First  warm  the  blocks;  next  coat  two  adjoining  sides  with  good,  strong 
glue;  then  put  them  in  position,  and  nail  them  firmly  to  both  tread 
and  riser.     It  will  be  noticed  that  the  riser  has  a  lip  on  the  upper 


Fig.  3.    Common  Method  of  Join- 
ing Risers  and  Treads. 


edge,  which  enters  into  a  groove  in  the  tread.    This  lip  is  generally 


Vertical  Section 
)f  Stair  Steps. 


Fig.  A.   End  Section 
of  Riser. 


Fig.  .5.  End  Section 
of  Tread. 


about  s  mch  long,  and  may  be  §  inch  or  h  inch  in  thickness.  Care 
nfiust  be  taken  in  getting  out  the  risers,  that  they  shall  not  be  made 
too  narrow,  as  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  lip. 

If  the  riser  is  a  little  too  wide,  this  will  do  no  harm,  as  the  ovd- 
wndth  may  hang  down  below  the  tread ;  but  it  must  be  cut  the  exact 
width  where  it  rests  on  the  string.  The  treads  must  be  made  the 
exact  width  required,  before  they  are  grooved  or  have  the  nosing 


156 


STAIR-BUILDING 


5 


Fig.  G.    Side  Elevation  of  Fiuish- 

ed   Steps   ^vith   Return 

Nosings    and    Cove 

Moulding. 


worked  on  the  outer  edge.    The  Hp  or  tongue  on  the  riser  should  fit 
snugly  in  the  groove,  and  should  bottom.     By  following  these  last 

instructions  and  seeing  that  the  blocks  are 
well  glued  in,  a  good  solid  job  will  be  the 
result. 

Fig.  3  is  a  vertical  section  of  stair 
sieps  in  which  the  risers  are  shown 
tongued  into  the  under  side  of  the  tread, 
as  in  Fig.  2,  and  also  the  tread  tongued 
into  the  face  of  the  riser.  This  last 
method  is  in  general  use  throughout  the 
country.  The  stair-builder,  when  he  has 
steps  of  this  kind  to  construct,  needs  to 
be  very  careful  to  secure  the  exact  width 
for  tread  and  riser,  including  the  tongue  on  each.  The  usual 
method,  in  getting  the  parts  prepared,  is  to  make  a  pattern  show- 
ing the  end  section  of  each.  The  millman,  with  these  patterns 
to  guide  him,  will  be  able  to  run  the  material  through  the  machine 
without  any  danger  of  leaving  it  either  too  wide  or  too  narrow;  while, 
if  he  is  left  to  himself  without  patterns,  he  is  liable  to  make  mistakes. 
These  patterns  are  illustrated  in  Figs.  4  and  5  respectively,  and,  as 
shown,  are  merely  end  sections  of  riser  and  tread. 

Fig.  6  is  a  side  elevation  of  the  steps  as  finished,  with  return 
nosings  and  cove  moulding  complete. 

A  front  elevation  of  the  finished  step 
is  shown  in  Fig.  7,  the  nosing  and  riser 
returning  against  the  base  of  the  newel  post. 
Often  the  newel  post  projects  past  the 
riser,  in  front;  and  when  such  is  the  case, 
the  riser  and  nosing  are  cut  square  against 
the  base  of  the  newel. 

Fig.  8  shows  a  portion  of  a  cut  and 
mitered  string,  w^hich  will  give  an  excellent 
idea  of  the  method  of  construction.    The 

letter  O  shows  the  nosing,  F  the  return  nosing  with  a  bracket  termi- 
nating against  it.  These  brackets  are  about  j\  inch  tliick,  and  are 
planted  (nailed)  on  the  string;  the  brackets  miter  with  the  ends  of 
the  risers;  the  ends  of  the  brackets  which  miter  with  the  risers,  are 


Fig.  7.   Front  Elevation  of 
Finished   Steps. 


157 


6 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Fig.  8.    Portion  of  a  Cut  and  Mitered 
Siring,   Showing  Method  of 
Constructing  Stairs. 


to  be  the  same  height  as  the  riser.     The   lower  ends  of  two  baUis- 

ters  are  shown  at  G  G;  and  the  dovetails  or  mortises  to  receive  these 

are  shown  at  E  E.     Generally  two  balusters   are  placed  on.  each 

tread,  as  shown  ;-l)ut  there  are  some- 
times instances  in  which  three  are  used, 
while  in  others  only  one  baluster  is 
made  u.se  of. 

An  end  portion  of  a  cut  and 
mitered  string  is  shown  in  Fig.  9,  with 
part  of  the  string  taken  away,  show- 
ing the  carriage  —  a  rough  piece  of 
lumber  to  which  the  finished  string  is 
nailed  or  otherwise  fastened.  At  C  is 
shown  the  return  nosing,  and  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  work  is  finished.  A 
rough  bracket  is  sometimes  nailed  on 

the  carriage,  as  shown  at  7),  to  support  the  tread.     The  balusters  are 

shown  dovetailed  into  the  ends  of  the  treads,  and  are  eidicr  glued  or 

nailed  in  place,  or  both.    On  the  lower  edge  of  string,  at  B,  is  a  return 

bead  or  moulding.    It  will  be  noticed  that  the  rough  carriage  is  cut  in 

snugly    against    the    floor    joist. 
Fig.  10  is  a  plan  of  the  portion 

of  a  stairway  shown   in   Fig.  9. 

Here  the  position  of  the  string, 

bracket,  riser,  and  tre.atl  can  be 

seen.    At  the  lower  step  is  shown 

how   to    miter  the   riser  to   the 

string;  and  at  the  second  step  is 

shown  how  to    miter    it   to    the 

bracket. 

Fig.  11  shows  a  (|uick  method 

of  marking  the  ends  of  the  treads 

for  the  dovetails   for  balusters. 

The  templet  A  is  made  of  some 

thin  material,  preferably  zinc  or 

hardwood.    The  dovetails  are  outlined  as  shown,  and  the  intervening 

portions  of  the  material  are  cut  away,  leaving  the  dovetail  portions 

solid.     The  templet  is  then  nailed  or  screwed  to  a  gauge-block  E, 


Kit 


9.    Knd  Portion  of  Cut  and  Miiered 
String, with  Part    Itenioved  to 
Show  Carriage. 


158 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Fig.  10.    Plau  of  Portion  of  Stair. 


when  the  whole  is  ready  for  use.    The  metliod  of  using  is  clearly 
indicated  in  the  illustration. 

Strings.     There  are  two  main  kinds  of  stair  strings — wall  strings 

and  cut  strings.    These  are  divid- 
ed, again,  under  other  names,  as 
Jioused     strings,    notched     strings, 
staved  strings,  and  rough  strings. 
Wall  strings  are  the  supporters 
of    the    ends    of    the    treads    and 
risers    that    are  against  the  wall; 
these  strings  may  be  at  both  ends  of 
the  treads  and  risers,  or  they  may  be  at  one  end  only.    They  may  be 
housed  (grooved)  or  left  solid.    When  housed,  the  treads  and  risers 
are  keyed  into  them,  and  glued  and  blocked.    When  left  solid,  they 
have  a  rough  string  or  carriage  .spiked  or  screwed  to  them,  to  lend 
additional  support  to  the  ends  of  risers  and  treads.    Stairs  made  after 
this  fashion  are  generally  of  a  rough,  strong  kind,  and  are  especially 
adapted  for  use  in  factories,  shops,  and  warehouses,  where  strength 
and  rigidity  are  of  more  importance  than  mere  external  appearance. 
Open  strings  are  outside  strings  or  supports,  and  are  cut  to  the 
proper  angles  for  receiving  the  ends  of 
the  treads  and  risers.     It  is  over  a  strino- 
of  this  sort  that  the  rail   and    balusters 
range;  it  is  also  on  such  a  string  that  al 
nosings  return;  hence,  in  some  localities, 
an  open  string  is  known  as  a  return  string. 
Housed  strings  are  those  that  have 
grooves  cut  in  them  to  receive  the  ends  of 
treads  and  risers.     As  a  general  thing,  wall  strings  are  housed.    The 
housings  are  made  from  |  to  f  inch  deep,  and  the  lines  at  top  of  tread 
and  face  of  riser  are  made  to  correspond  with  the  lines  of  riser  and 
tread  when  in  position.     The  back   lines   of  the   housings  are   so 
located  that  a  taper  wedge  may  be  driven  in  so  as  to  force  the  tread 
and  riser  close  to  the  face  shoulders,  thus  making  a  tight  joint. 

Rough  strings  are  cut  from  undressed  plank,  and  are  used  for 
strengthening  the  stairs.  Sometimes  a  combination  of  rough-cut 
strings  is  used  for  circular  or  geometrical  stairs,  and,  when  framed 
together,  forms  the  support  or  carriage  of  the  stairs. 


Fig.  11.    Templet  Used  to  Mark 

Dovetail   Cuts   for 

Balusters. 


159 


8  STAIR-BUILDING 


Staved  strings  are  V)uilt-up  strings,  and  are  composed  of  narrow 
pieces  glued,  nailed,  or  bolted  together  so  as  to  form  a  portion  of  a 
cylinder.  These  arc  sometimes  used  for  circular  stairs,  though  in 
ordinary  practice  the  circular  part  of  a  string  is  a  part  of  the  main 
string  bent  around  a  cylinder  to  give  it  the  right  curve. 

Notched  stmigs  are  strings  that  carry  only  treads.  They  are 
generally  somewhat  narrower  than  the  treads,  and  are  housed  across 
their  entire  width.  A  sample  of  this  kind  of  string  is  the  side  of  a 
common  step-ladder.  Strings  of  this  sort  are  used  chiefly  in  cellars, 
or  for  steps  intended  for  similar  purposes. 

Setting  Out  Stairs.  In  setting  out  stairs,  the  first  thing  to  do  is 
to  ascertain  the  locations  of  the  first  and  last  risers,  with  the  height 
of  the  story  wherein  the  stair  is  to  be  placed.  These  points  should  be 
marked  out,  and  the  distance  between  them  divided  off  equally, 
giving  the  number  of  steps  or  treads  required.  Suppose  we  have 
between  these  two  points  15  feet,  or  1<S0  inches.  If  we  make  our 
treads  10  inches  wide,  we  shall  have  18  treads.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  the  number  of  risers  is  ahvays  one  more  than  the  number  of  treads, 
so  that  in  the  case  before  us  there  will  be  19  risers. 

The  height  of  the  story  is  next  to  be  exactly  determined,  being 

taken  on  a  rod.    Then,  assuming  a  height  of  riser  suitable  to  the  place, 

we  ascertain,  by  division,  how  often  this  height  of  riser  is  contained 

in  the  height  of  the  story;  the  quotient,  if  there  is  no  remainder, 

v/ill  be  the  number  of  risers  in  the  story.    Should  there  be  a  remainder 

on  the  first  division,  the  operation  is  reversed,  the  number  of  inches 

iij  the  height  being  made  the  dividend,  and  the  before-found  quotient, 

the  divisor.      The  resulting  (juotient  will  indicate  an  amount  to  be 

added  to  the  former  assumed  height  of  riser  for  a  new  trial  height. 

The  remainder  will  now  be  less  than  in  the  former  division;  and  if 

necessary,  the  operation  of  reduction  by  division  is  repeated,  until 

the  height  of  the  riser  is  obtained  to  the  thirty-second  part  of  an  inch. 

These  heights  are  then  set  off  on  the  stoiy  rod  as  exactly  as  possible. 

The  story  rod  is  simply  a  dressed  or  planed  pole,  cut  to  a  length 

exactly  corresponding  to  the  height  from  the  top  of  the  lower  floor 

to  the  top  of  the  next  floor.    Let  us  suppose  this  height  to  be  11  feet 

1  inch,  or  133  inches.    Now,  we  have  19  risers  to  place  in  this  space, 

to  enable  us  to  get  upstairs;  therefore,  if  we  divide  133  by  19,  we 

get  7  without  any  remainder.     Seven  inches  will  therefore   be  the 


160 


STAIR-BUILDING 


9 


width  or  height  of  the  riser.  Without  figuring  this  out,  the  workman 
may  find  the  exact  width  of  the  riser  by  dividing  his  story  rod,  by 
means  of  pointers,  into  19  equal  parts,  any  one  part  being  the  proper 
width.  It  may  be  well,  at  this  point,  to  remember  that  the  first  riser 
must  alwaijs  he  narroivcr  than  the  others,  because  the  thickness  of  the 
first  tread  must  be  taken  off. 

The  width  of  treads  may  also  be  found  without  figuring,  by 
pointing  off  the  run  of  the  stairs  into  the  required  number  of  parts; 
though,  where  the  student  is  qualified,  it  is  always  better  to  obtain 
the  width,  both  of  treads  and  of  risers,  by  the  simple  arithmetical 
rules. 

Having  determined  the  width  of  treads  and  risers,  a  pitch-board 
should  be  formed,  showing  the  angle  of  inclination.  This  is  done  by 
cutting  a  piece  of  thin  board  or  metal  in  the  shape  of  a  right-angled 
triangle,  with  its  base  exactly  equal  to  the  run  of  the  step,  and  its 
perpendicular  equal  to 
the  height  of  the  riser. 
It  is  a  general  maxim, 
that    the    greater    the 

breadth  of  a  step  or  tread , 

the    less   should    be    the 

height  of  the  riser;  and, 

converselv,   the   less   the 

breadth  of   a    step,    the 

greater    should     be'   the 

height  of  the  riser.    The 

proper  relative  dimensions  of  treads   and    risers   may  be   illustrated 

graphically,  as  in  Fig.  12. 

In  the  right-angle  triangle  A  B  C,  make  A  B  equal  to  24  inches, 

and  B  C  equal  to  11  inches — the  standard  proportion.    Now,  to  find 

the  riser  corresponding  to  a  given  width  of  tread,  from  B,  set  off  on 

A  B  the  width  of  the  tread,  as  B  D;  and  from  I),  erect  a  perpendicular 

D  E,  meeting  the  hypotenuse  in  E;  then  D  E  is  the  height  of  the  riser; 

and  if  we  join  B  and  E,  the  angle  D  B  E  is  the  angle  of  inclination, 

showing  the  slope  of  the  ascent.     In  like  manner,  where  B  F  is  the 

width  of  the  tread,  F  G  is  the  riser,  and  B  G  the  slope  of  the  stair. 

A  width  of  tread  B  EI  gives  a  riser  of  the  height  of  H  K;  and  a  width 

of  tread  equal  to  B  L  gives  a  riser  equal  to  L  M. 


Fig.  12.    Graphic  Illustration  of  Proportional  Dimen- 
sions of  Treads  and  Riser.s. 


161 


10  STAIR-BUILDING 


In  the  opinion  of  many  builders,  however,  a  better  scheme  of 
proportions  for  treads  and  risers  is  obtained  by  the  following  method : 

Set  down  two  sets  of  numbers,  each  in  arithmetical  progression — 
the  first  set  showing  widths  of  tread,  increasing  by  inches;  the  other 
showing  heights  of  riser,  decreasing  by  half-inches. 


Treads, 

Inches 

Rii 

SERS,  I.VCHES 

5 

9 

6 

8i 

7 

8 

S 

~\ 

9 

7 

-10 

6i 

11 

6 

12 

/ 

5^ 

13 

5 

14 

^ 

15 

4 

16 

3^ 

17 

3 

18 

2i 

It  will  readily  be  seen  that  each  pair  of  treads  and  risers  thus  obtained 
is  suitably  proportioned  as  to  dimensions. 

It  is  seldom,  however,  that  the  proportions  of  treads  and  risers 
are  entirely  a  matter  of  choice.  The  space  allotted  to  the  stairs  usually 
determines  this  proportion;  but  the  above  will  be  found  a  useful  stand- 
ard, to  which  it  is  desirable  to  approximate. 

In  the  better  class  of  buildings,  the  number  of  steps  is  considered 
in  the  plan,  which  it  is  the  business  of  the  Architect  to  arrange;  and 
in  such  cases,  the  height  of  the  story  rod  is  simply  dividecl  into  the 
number  required. 

Pitch-Board.  It  will  now  be  in  order  to  dcscril)e  a  pitch-board 
and  the  manner  of  using  it ;  no  stairs  can  be  properly  built  without 
the  use  of  a  pitch-board  in  some  form  or  otlier.  Properly  speaking, 
a  pitch-board,  as  already  explained,  is  a  thin  piece  of  material, 
generally  pine  or  sheet  metal,  and  is  a  right-angled  triangle  in  outline. 
One  of  its  sides  is  made  the  exact  height  of  the  rise;  at  right  angles 
with  this  line  of  rise,  the  exact  width  of  the  tread  is  measured  off; 
and  the  material  is  cut  along  the  hypotenuse  of  the  right-angled 
triangle  thus  formed. 

The  simplest  method  of  making  a  pitch-board  is  by  using  a  steel 


162 


STAIR-BUILDING 


11 


Fig.  13.    Steel  Square  Used  ns  a  Pitch- 
Board  in  Laying  Out  Stair 
String. 


square,  which,  of  course,  every  carpenter  in  this  country  is  supposed 

to  possess.    By  means  of  this  invaluable  tool,  also,  a  stair  string  can 

be  laid  out,  the  square  being  applied  to  the  string  as  shown  in  Fig.  13. 

In  the  instance  here  illustrated,  the 
square  shows  10  inches  for  the 
tread  and  7  inches  for  the  rise. 

To  cut  a  pitch-board,  after  the 
tread  and  rise  have  been  deter- 
mined, proceed  as  follows:  Take 
a  piece  of  thin,  clear  material,  and 
lay  the  square  on  the  face  edge,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  13.    ]\Iark  out  the 

pitch-board  with  a  sharp  knife;  then  cut  out  with  a  fine  saw,  and 

dress  to  the  knife  marks;  nail  a  piece  on  the  largest  edge  of  the  pitch- 
board  for  a  gauge  or  fence,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Fig.  14  shows  the  pitch-board  pure  and  simple;  it  may  be  half 

an  inch  thick,  or,  if  of  hardwood,  may  be  from  a  quarter-inch  to  a 

half-inch  thick. 

Fig.  15  shows  the  pitch-board  after  the  gauge  or  fence  is  nailed  on. 

This  fence  or  gauge  may  be  about  U  inches  wide  and  from  f  to  f 

inch  thick  . 

Fig.  16  shows  a  sectional  view  of  the  pitch-board  with  a  fence 

nailed  on. 

In  Fig.   17  the  manner  of  applying  the  pitch-board  is  shown. 

R  R  Ris  the  string,  and  the  line  A  shows  the  jointed  or  straight  edge 

of    the    string.      The 

pitch-board    P     is 

shown  in  position,  the 

line*8|  represents  the 

step  or  tread,  and  the 

line  7f  shows  the  line 

of  the   riser.     These 

two  lines  are  of  course 

at  right  angles,  or,  as  the   carpenter   would   say,  they  are  square. 

This  string  shows  four    complete   cuts,  and  part  of  a  fifth  cut  for 

treads,  and  five  complete  cuts  for  risers.     The  bottom  of  the  string 

at  JV  is  cut  off  at  the  line  of  the  floor  on  which  it  is  supposed  to 

rest.    The  line  C  is  the  line  of  the  first  riser.     This  riser  is  cut  lower 


J 


Fig.  15. 


Fig.  16. 


Showing  How  a  Pitch-Board  is  Made. 

Fig.  15  shows  gauge  fastened  to  long  edge;  Fig.  16  is  a 

sectional  elevation  of  completed  board 


188 


12 


STAIR-BUILDIXG 


Showing  Mt^thod  of  Using  Pilcli-15<>:iriL 


than  any  of  the  other  risers,  because,  as  above  explained,  tlie  thick- 
ness of  the  first  tread  is  always  taken  off  it;  thus,  if  the  tread  is  1} 
inches  thick,  the  riser  in  this  case  would  only  require  to  be  G|^  inches 
wide,  as  7f  —11  =  G|. 

The  string  must  be  cut  so  that  'the  line  at  IF  will  be  onlv  6\: 
inches  from  the  line  at  SJ,  and  these  two  lines  must  be  parallel. 
The  first  riser  and  tread  having  been  satisfactorily  dealt  with,  the 
rest  can  easily  be  marked  off  by  simply  sliding  the  pitch-board  along 
the  line  .1  until  the  outer  end  of  the  line  S|  on  the  pitch-board 
strikes  the  outer  end  of  the  line  7|  on  the  string,  when  another  tread 
and  another  riser  are  to  be  marked  off.  The  remaining  risers  and 
treads  are  marked  off  in  the  same  manner. 

Sometimes  there  may  be  a  little  difficulty  at  the  top  of  the  stairs, 

in    fitting   the    string   to  the 

^ „ _^      trimmer  or  loists:  but,  as  it 

c  /  \  p   X  \        /  \        7x         /\j 

is  necessary  first  to  become 

expert  with  the  pitch-board, 

the  method  of  trimming  the 

well  oi-  attaching  the  cylinder 

to  the  string  will  be  left  until  other  matters  have  been  discussed. 

Fig.  18  shows  a  portion  of  the  stairs  in  position.     8  and  S  show 

the  strings,  which  in  this  case  are  cut  square;  that  is,  the  part  of  the 

string  to  which  the  riser  is  joined  is  cut  square  across,  and  the  butt  or 

end  wood  of  the  riser  is  seen.    In  this  case,  also,  the  end  of  the  tread 

is  cut  square  off,  and  flush  with  the  string  and  riser.    Both  strings 

in  this  instance  are  open  strings.    L^sually,  in  stairs  of  this  kind,  the 

ends  of  the  treads  are  rounded  off  similarly  to  the  front  of  the  tread, 

and  the  ends  project  over  the  strings  the  same  distance  that  the  front 

edge  projects  over  the  riser.    If  a  moulding  or  cove  is  used  under  the 

nosing  in  front,  it  should  be  carried  round  on  the  string  to  the  back 

edge  of  the  tread  and  cut  off  scjuare,  for  in  this  case  the  back  edge  of 

the  tread  will  be  square.    A  riser  is  shown  at  R,  and  it  will  be  noticed 

that  it  runs  down  behind  the  tread  on  the  back  edge,  and  is  either 

nailed  or  screwed  to  the  tread.    This  is  the  American  practice,  though 

in  England  the  riser  usually  rests  on  the  tread,  which  extends  clear 

back  to  string  as  shown  at  the  toj)  tread  in  the  diagram.     It  is  much 

better,  however,  for  general  purposes,  that  the  riser  go  behind  the 

tread,  as  this  tends  to  make  the  whole  stairwav  much  stronger. 


164 


STAIR-BUILDING 


13 


Fig.  18.    Portion  of  Stair  in  Position. 


Housed  strings  arc  those  which  carry  the  treads  and  risers  without 
their  ends  being  seen.  In  an  open  stair,  the  wall  string  only  is  housed, 
the  other  ends  of  the  treads  and  risers  resting  on  a  cut  string,  and  the 

nosings  and  mouldings 
being  returned  as  be- 
fore described. 

The  manner  of 
housing  is  shown  in 
Fig.  19,  in  which  the 
treads  T  T  and  the 
risers  R  R  are  shown 
in  position,  secured  in 
place  respectively  by 
means  of  wedges  X  X 
and  F  F,  which  should 
be  well  covered  with 
good  glue  before  insertion  in  the  groove.  The  housings  are 
generally  made  from  h  to  f  inch  deep,  space  for  the  wedge  being  cut 
to  suit. 

In  some  closed  stairs  in  which  there  is  a  housed  string  betw  een  the 
newels,  the  string  is  double-tenoned  into  the  shanks  of  both  newels, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  20.  The  string  in  this  example  is  made  12f  inches 
wide,  which  is  a  very  good  width 
for  a  string  of  this  kind;  but  the 
thickness  should  never  be  less  than 
H  inches.  The  upper  new^l  is  made 
about  5  feet  4  inches  long  from  drop 
to  top  of  cap.  These  strings  are 
generally  capped  wdth  a  subrail  of 
some  kind,  on  which  the  baluster, 
if  any,  is  cut-mitered  in.  Generally 
a  groove,  the  width  of  the  square 
of  the  balusters,  is  worked  on  the 
top  of  the  subrail,  and  the  balusters  are  worked  out  to  fit  into  this 
groove;  then  pieces  of  this  material,  made  Hie  width  of  the  groove 
and  a  little  thicker  than  the  groove  is  deep,  are  cut  so  as  to  fit  in 
snugly  between  the  ends  of  the  balusters  resting  in  the  groove.  This' 
makes  a  solid  job;  and  the  pieces  between  the  balusters  may  be  made 


Showing  Method  of  Housing 
Treads  and  Risers. 


165 


14 


STAIR-BUILDING 


of  any  shape  on  top,  cither  beveled,  rounded,  or  moulded,  in  which 
case  much  is  added  to  the  appearance  of  the  stairs. 

Fig.  21  exhibits  the  method  of  attaching  the  rail  and  string  to 

the  bottom  newel.     The  dotted  lines 
indicate  the  form  of  the  tenons  cut  to 
fit  the  mortises  made  in  the  newel  to 
receive  them. 
Fig.   22  shows  how  the  string  fits 


against  the  newel  at  the  top; 
also  the  trimmer  E,  to  which  the 
newel  post  is  fastened.  The 
string  in  this  case  is  tenoned  into 
the  upper  newel  post  the  same 
way  as  into  the  lower  one. 


"1 


Fig.  20.    Showing  Metbod  of  Con- 
necting Hmisi'd  Siring  to 
Newels. 


Fig.  21.    MctliiKl  of  Cnnnei't- 

iug  liiiil  and  String  lu 

Bottom  Newel. 


The  open  string  shown  in  Fig.  23  is  a  portion 
of  a  finished  string,  showing  nosings  and  cove 
returned  and  finishing  against  the  face  of  the 
string.  Along  the  lower  edge  of  the  string  is 
shown  a  bead  or  moulding,  where  the  plaster 
is  finished . 

A  portion  of  a  stair  of  the  better  class  is 
shown  in  Fig.  24.  This  is  an  open,  bracketed 
string,  with  returned  nosings  and  coves  and 
scroll  brackets.  These  brackets  are  made  about 
^  inch  thick,  and  may  be  in  any  desirable  pat- 
tern. The  end  next  the  riser  should  be  mite  red 
to  suit;  this  will  require  the  ri.ser  to  be  f  inch 
longer  than  the  face  of  the  string.  The  upper 
part  of  the  bracket  should  run  under  the  cove 
moulding;  and  the  tread  should  project  over 
the  string  the  full  |  inch,  so  as  to  cover  the 


166 


STAIR-BUILDING 


15 


bracket  and  make  the  face  even  for  the  nosing  and  the  cove  moukling 
to  fit  snugly  against  the  end  of  the  tread  and  the  face  of  the  bracket. 
Great  care  must  be  taken  about  this  point,  or  endless  trouble  will 

follow.  In  a  bracketed 
stair  of  this  kind,  care 
must  be  taken  in  plac- 
ing the  newel  posts, 
and  provision  must  be 
made  for  the  extra  f 
inch  due  to  the  brack- 
et. The  newel  post 
must  be  set  out  from 
the  string  f  inch,  and 
it  will  then  align  with 
the  baluster. 
We  have  now  de- 
scribed several  methods  of  dealing  with  strings;  but  there  are  still  a 
few  other  points  connected  with  these  members,  both  housed  and 
open,  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  explain,  before  the  young  work- 
man can  proceed  to  build  a  fair  flight  of  stairs.  The  connection  of 
the  wall  string  to  the  lower  and  upper  floors,  and  the  manner  of 
affixing  the  outer  or  cut  string  to  the  upper  joist  and  to  the  newel, 


Fig.  23.    Connections  of  String  and  Trimmer  at  Upper 
Newel  Post. 


Fig.  23.    Portion  of  Finished  String, 
Showing  Returned  Nosings 
and  Coves,  also  Bead 
Moulding. 


Fig.  21.    Portion  of  Open,  Bracketed 
String  Stair,  with  Returned  Nos- 
ings and  Coves,  Scroll  Brack- 
ets, and  Bead  Moulding. 


are  matters  that  must  not  be  overlooked.  It  is  the  intention  to  show 
how  these  things  are  accomplished,  and  how  the  stairs  are  made 
strong  by  the  addition  of  rough  strings  or  bearing  carriages. 


167 


16 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Fig.  25.     5=.ide  Elevatiop  of  Part  of 
Stall'  with  Open.  Cut  aud 
Mitered    String. 


FiL^  25  irives  a  side  view  of  part  of  a  s(air  of  tlic  better  class,  with 
one  open,  cut  and  mitered  string.  In  Fig.  26,  a  plan  of  this  same  stair- 
way, W  S  shows  the  wall  string;  R  S,  the  rough  string,  placed  there 

to  give  the  structure  strength;  and  0 
S,  the  outer  or  cut  and  mitered  string. 
At  A  A  the  ends  of  the  risers  are  shown, 
and  it  will  be  noticed  that  they  are 
mitered  against  a  vertical  or  riser  line 
of  the  string,  thus  preventing  the  end  of 
the  riser  from  being  seen.  The  other 
end  of  the  riser  is  in  the  housing  in  the 
wall  string.  The  outer  end  of  the  tread 
is  also  mitered  at  the  nosing,  and  a  piece 
of  material  made  or  worked  like  t)ie 
nosing  is  mitered  against  or  returned  at  the  end  of  the  tread. 
The  end  of  this  returned  piece  is  again  returned  on  itself  back  to  the 
string,  as  shown  at  N  in  Fig.  25.  The  moulding,  which  is  f-inch 
cove  in  this  case,  is  also  returned  on  itself  back  to  the  string. 

The  mortises  shown  at  B  B  B  B  (Fig.  26),  are  for  the  balusters. 
It  is  always  the  proper  thing  to  saw  the  ends  of  the  treads  ready  for 
the  balusters  before  the  treads  are  attached  to  the  string;  then,  when 
the  time  arrives  to  put  up  the  rail,  the  back  ends  of  the  mortises  can 
be  cut  out,  when  the  treads  will 
be  ready  to  receive  the  balusters. 
The  mortises  are  dovetailed,  and, 
of  course,  the  tenons  on  the  balus- 
ters must  be  made  to  suit.  The 
treads  are  finished  on  the  bench ; 
and  the  return  nosings  are  fitted 
to  them  and  tacked  on,  so  that 
they  may  be  taken  off  to  insert 
the  balusters  when  the  rail  is  being 
put  in  position. 

Fig.  27  shows  the  manner  in 
which  a  wall  string  is  finished  at  the   foot  of  the  stairs.    S  shows  the 
string,  with  moulding  wrought  on  the  upper  edge.    This  moulding 
may  be  a  simple  ogee,  or  may   consist  of  a  number  of  members; 
or  it  may  be  only  a  bead;  or,  again,  the  edge  of  the  string  maybe 


r 


B 


B 


B 

it 


B 


;^ws 


7RS 


30S 


Fig.  26. 


Plan  of  Part  of  Stair  Shown  in 
Fig.  25. 


168 


STAIR-BUILDING 


17 


Fig.  27. 


Showing  How  Wall  String  is  Fin- 
ished at  Foot  of  Stair. 


left  quite  plain;  this  will  be  regulated  in  great  measure  by  the  style  of 

finish  in  the  hall  or  other  part  of  the  house  in  which  the  stairs  are 

placed.    B  shows  a  portion  of  a  baseboard,  the  top  edge  of  which 

has  the  same  finish  as  the  top  edge  of  the  string.     B  and  A  together 

show  the  junction  of  the  string 
and  base.  F  F  show  blocks 
glued  in  the  angles  of  the  steps 
to  make  them  firm  and  solid. 
Fig.  28  shows  the  manner 
in  which  the  wall  string  S  is 
finished  at  the  top  of  the  stairs. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
moulding  is  worked  round  the 
ease-off  at  A  to  suit '  the  width 
of  the  base  at  B.  The  string 
is  cut  to  fit  the  floor  and  to 

butt  against  the  joist.     The  plaster  line  under  the  stairs  and  on  the 

ceiling,  is  also  shown. 

Fig.  29  shows  a  cut  or  open  string  at  the  foot  of  a  stairway,  and 

the  manner  of  dealing  with  it  at  its  junction  with  the  newel  post  K. 

The  point  of  the  string  should 

be  mortised  into  the  newel  2 

inches,  3  inches,  or  4  inches, 

as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines; 

and  the  mortise  in  the  newel 

should  be  cut  near  the  center, 

so  that  the  center  of  the  balus- 
ter  will   be  directly  opposite 

the  central  line  of  the  newel 

post.       The    proper     way   to 

manage  this,   is  to   mark  the 

central  line  of  the  baluster  on 

the  tread,  and  then  make  this 

line  correspond  with  the  central  line  of  the  newel  post.     By  careful 

attention  to  this  point,  much  trouble  will  be  avoided  where  a  turned 

cap  is  used  to  receive  the  lower  part  of  the  rail. 

The  lower  riser  in  a  stair  of  this  kind  will  be  somewhat  shorter 

than  the  ones  above  it,  as  it  must  be  cut  to  fit  between  the  newel  and 


Fig.  28.    Showing  How  Wall  String  is  Fin- 
ished at  Top  of  Stair. 


169 


18 


STAIR-BUILDING 


the  wall  string.    A  portion  of  the  tread,  as  well  as  of  the  riser,  will 
also  butt  against  the  newel,  as  shown  at  W. 

If  there  is  no  spandrel  or  wall  under  the  open  string,  it  may 
run  down  to  the  floor  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line  at  0.  The  piece 
0  is  glued  to  the  string,  and  the  moulding  is  worked  on  the  curve. 
If  there  is  a  wall  under  the  string  S,  then  the  base  B,  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines,  will  finish  against  the  string,  and  it  should  have  a  mould- 
ing on  its  upper  edge,  the  same  as  that  on  the  lower  edge  of  the  string, 
if  any,  this  moulding  being  mitered  into  the  one  on  the  string.  When 
there  is  a  base,  the  piece  0  is  of  course  dispensed  with. 

The  square  of  the  newel  should  run  down  by  the  side  of  a  joist 
as  shown,  and  should  be  firmly  secured  to  the  joist  either  by  spiking 

or  by  some  other  suitable  device. 
If  the  joist  runs  the  other  way, 
try  to  get  the  newel  post  against 
it,  if  possible,  either  by  furring 
out  the  joist  or  by  cutting  a  por- 
tion off  the  thickness  of  the  newel. 
Tlie  solidity  of  a  stair  and  the 
firmness  of  the  rail,  depend  very 
much  upon  the  rigidity  of  the 
newel  post.     The  above  sugges- 


Sc[uare 


:^ 


^  Joist 

3xio 


Fig.  29.  shmvintr  How  a  Cut  or  Open  String    tions  are  applicable  where  great 

IS  Finished  at  Foot  of  Stair.  rr      ^  o 

strength  is  required,  as  in  public 
buildings.  In  ordinary  work,  the  usual  method  is  to  let  the  newel  rest 
on  the  floor. 

Fig.  30  shows  how  the  cut  string  is  finished  at  the  top  of  the  stairs. 
This  illustration  requires  no  explanation  after  the  instructions  already 
given. 

Thus  far,  stairs  having  a  newel  only  at  the  bottom  have  been 
dealt  with.  There  are,  however,  many  modifications  of  straight  and 
return  stairs  which  have  from  two  to  four  or  six  newels.  In  such- 
cases,  the  methods  of  treating  strings  at  their  finishing  points  must 
necessarily  be  somewhat  different  from  those  described;  but  the 
general  principles,  as  shown  and  explained,  will  still  hold  good. 

Well-Hole.  Before  proceeding  to  describe  and  illustrate  neweled 
stairs,  it  will  be  proper  to  say  something  about  the  ivcll-hole,  or  the 


170 


< 

X 
o 
u 

9  ^'S 


.J 


< 

H 
(A 


STAIR-BUILDING 


19 


opening  tlirougli  the  floors,  through  which  the  traveler  on  the  stairs 
ascends  or  descends  from  one  floor  to  another. 

Fig.  31  shows  a  well-hole,  and  the  manner  of  trimming  it.  In 
this  instance  the  stairs  are  placed  against  the  wall;  but  this  is  not 
necessary  in  all  cases,  as  the  well-hole  may  be  placed  in  any  part  of 
the  building. 

The  arrangement  of  the  trimming  varies  according  as  the  joists 
are  at  right  angles  to,  or  are  parallel  to,  the  wall  against  which  the 
stairs  are  built.  In  the  former  case  (Fig.  31,  A)  the  joists  are  cut  short 
and  tusk-tenoned  into  the  heavy  trimmer  T  T ,  as  shown  in  the  cut. 
This  trimmer  is  again  tusk-tenoned  into  two  heavy  joists  T  J  and  T  J, 
which  form  the  ends  of  the  well-hole.  These  heavy  joists  are  called 
trimming  joists;  and,  as  they  have  to  carry  a  much  heavier  load  than 
other  joists  on  the  ^ame  floor, 
they  are  made  much  heavier. 
Sometimes  two  or  three  joists 
are  placed  together,  side  by 
side,   being    bolted  or  spiked 


together    to 


give 


them    the 


desired  unity  and  strength.  In 
constructions  requiring  great 
strength,  the  tail  and  header 
joists  of  a  well-hole  are  sus- 
pended on  iron  brackets. 

If  the  opening  runs  paral- 
lel with  the  joists   (Fig.  31,  B), 
well-hole  should  be  left  a  little 


30.    Showing  How  a  Cut  or  Open  String 
is  Finished  at  Top  of  Stair. 


the  timber  forming  the  side  of  the 
heavier  than  the  other  joists,  as  it 
will  have  to  carry  short  trimmers  (T  J  and  T  J)  and  the  joists  run- 
ning into  them.  The  method  here  shown  is  more  particularly 
adapted  to  brick  buildings,  but  there  is  no  reason  v.'hy  the  same 
system  may  not  be  applied  to  frame  buildings. 

Usually  in  cheap,  frame  buildings,  the  trimmers  T  T  are  spiked 
against  the  ends  of  the  joists,  and  the  ends  of  the  trimmers  are  sup- 
ported by  being  spiked  to  the  trimming  joists  T  J,  T  J.  This  fs  not 
very  workmanlike  or  very  secure,  ami  should  not  be  tlone,  as  it  is  not 
nearly  so  strong  or  durable  as  the  old  method  of  framing  the  joists  and 
trimmers  together. 

Fig.  32  shows  a  stair  with  three  newels  and  a  j^latform.     In  ihis 


171 


20 


STAIR-BUILDING 


example,  the  first  tread  (No.  1)  stands  forward -of  the  newel  post 
two-thirds  of  its  width.  This  is  not  necessary  in  every  case,  but  it  is 
sometimes  done  to  suit  conditions  in  the  hallway.  The  second  newel 
is  placed  at  the  twelfth  riser,  and  supports  the  upper  end  of  the  first 


P 


h 


T.J. 


"ET 


Fig.  31.    Showing  Ways  of  Trimming  Well-Hole  when  Joists  Rim  in  Different 

Dii'eclioiis. 

cut  string  and  the  lower  end  of  the  second  cut  string.  The  platform 
(12)  is  supported  l^y  joists  which  are  framed  into  the  wall  and  are 
fastened  against  a  trimmer  running  from  the  wall  to  the  newel  along 
the  line  12.  This  is  the  case  only  when  the  second  newel  runs  down 
to  the  floor. 

If  the  second  newel  does  not  run  to  the  floor,  the  framework 
supporting  the  platform  will  need  to  be  built  on  studding.  The  third 
newel  stands  at  the  top  of  the  stairs,  and  is  fastened  to  the  joists  of 
the  second  floor,  or  to  the  trimmer,  somewhat  after  the  manner  of 
fastening  shown  in  Fig.  29.    In  this  example,  the  stairs  have  IC  risers 


172 


STAIR-BUILDING 


21 


and  15  treads,  the  platform  or  lamling  (12)  making  one  tread.  The 
figure  IG  shows  the  floor  in  the  second  storv. 

This  style  of  stair  will  require  a  well-hole  in  shape  about  as 
shown  in  the  plan;  and  where  strength  is  required,  the  newel  at  the 
top  should  run  from  floor  to  floor,  and  act  as  a  support  to  the  joists 
and  trimmers  on  which  the  second  floor  is  laid. 

Perhaps  the  best  way  for  a  beginner  to  go  about  building  a  stair- 
way of  this  type,  will  be  to  lay  out  the  work  on  the  lower  floor  in  the 
exact  place  where  the  stairs  are  to  be  erectetl,  making  everything 


orm 

1^ 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

A 

3 

? 

1 

t- 

■Hi 

ID 

Ql 

^ 

_^ 

-1 

ro 

1 

|_j^y 

-^5"x5" 

6"x6" 

^ 

ID 

■^ 

J5"x5" 

ID 

Pig.  32.    Staii-  with  Three  Newels  and  a  Platform. 

full  size.  There  will  be  no  difficulty  in  doing  this;  and  if  the  positions 
of  the  first  riser  and  the  three  newel  posts  are  accurately  defined, 
the  building  of  the  stairs  will  be  an  easy  matter.  Plumb  lines  can  be 
raised  from  the  lines  on  the  floor,  and  the  positions  of  the  platform 
and  each  riser  thus  easily  determined.  Not  only  is  it  best  to  line  out 
on  the  floor  all  stairs  havino^  more  than  one  newel ;  but  in  constructino; 
any  kind  of  stair  it  will  perhaps  be  safest  for  a  beginner  to  lay  out  in 
exact  position  on  the  floor  the  points  over  which  the  treads  and  risers 
v.ill  stand.  By  adopting  this  rule,  and  seeing  that  the  strings,  risers, 
and  treads  correspond  exactly  with  the  lines  on  the  floor,  many  cases 
of  annoyance  will  be  avoided.  Many  expert  stair-builders,  in  fact, 
adopt  this  method  in  their  practice,  laying  out  all  stairs  on  the  floor, 
including  even  the  carriage  strings,  and  they  cut  out  all  the  material 
from  the  lines  obtained  on  the  floor.  By  following  this  method,  one 
can  see  exactly  the  requirements  in  each  particular  case,  and  can 
rectify  any  error  without  destroying  valuable  material. 


173 


22  STAIR-BUILDIXG 


Laying  Out.  In  order  to  afford  the  student  a  clear  idea  of  what 
is  meant  by  hujing  out  on  the  floor,  an  example  of  a  simple  close- 
string  stair  is  given.  In  Fig.  33,  the  letter  F  shows  the  floor  line; 
L  is  the  landing  or  platform;  and  W  is  the  wall  line.  The  stair  is  to 
be  4  feet  wide  over  strings;  the  landing,  4  feet  wide ;  the  height  from 
floor  to  landing,  7  feet;  and  the  run  from  start  to  finish  of  the  stair,  8 
feet  8!  inches. 

The  first  thing  to  determine  is  tlie  dimensions  of  the  treads  and 
risers.  The  wider  the  tread,  the  lower  must  be  the  riser,  as  stated 
before.  No  definite  dimensions  for  treads  and  risers  can  be  given, 
as  the  steps  have  to  be  arranged  to  meet  the  various  difficulties  that 
may  occur  in  the  working  out  of  the  construction;  but  a  common 
rule  is  this:  ]\Iake  the  width  of  the  tread,  plus  twice  the  rise,  equal 
to  24  inches.  This  will  give,  for  an  8-inch  tread,  an  8-inch  rise; 
for  a  9-inch  tread,  a  T^-inch  rise;  for  a  10-inch  tread,  a  7-inch  rise, 
and  so  on.  Having  the  height  (7  feet)  and  the  run  of  the  flight  (8  feet 
8-2  inches),  take  a  rod  about  one  inch  square,  and  mark  on  it  the  height 
from  floor  to  landing  (7  feet),  and  the  length  of  the  going  or  run  of  the 
flight  (S  feet  S^  inches).  Consider  now  what  are  the  dimensions 
which  can  be  given  to  the  treads  and  risers,  remembering  that  there 
will  be  one  more  riser  than  the  number  of  treads.  Mark  oft'  on  the 
rod  the  landing,  forming  die  last  tread.  If  twelve  risers  are  desired, 
divide  the  height  (namely,  7  feet)  by  12,  which  gives  7  inches  as  the 
rise  of  each  step.  Then  divide  the  run  (namely,  8  feet  8;^  inches)  by 
11,  and  the  width  of  the  tread  is  found  to  be  9^  inches. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  in  making  the  pitch-board  for  marking 
off  the  treads  and  risers  on  the  string.  The  pitch-board  may  be  mafle 
from  dry  hardwood  about  «  inch  thick.  One  end  and  one  side  must 
be  perfectly  sfjuare  to  each  other;  on  the  one,  the  width  of  the  tread 
is  set  oft',  and  or^  the  other  the  height  of  the  riser.  Connect  the  two 
points  thus  obtained,  and  saw  the  wood  on  this  line.  The  addition 
of  a  gauge-piece  along  the  longest  side  of  the  triangular  piece,  com- 
pletes die  pitch-board,  as  was  illustrated  in  Fig.  15. 

The  length  of  the  wall  and  outer  string  can  be  ascertained  by 
means  of  the  pitch-board.  One  side  and  one  edge  of  the  wall  string 
must  be  squared;  but  the  outer  string  must  be  trued  all  round.  On 
the  strings,  mark  the  positions  of  the  treads  and  risers  by  using  the 
pitch-board   as  already  explained    (Fig.    17).      Strings  are   usually 


174 


STAIR-BUILDIXG 


23 


made  II  inches  wide,  but  may  be  made  12^  inches  wide  if  necessary 
for  strensrth. 

After  the  widths  of  risers  and  treads  have  been  determined,  and 
the  string  is  ready  to  lay  out,  apply  the  pitch-board,  marking  the 


N 


J — ' 


Fig.  33.    Method  of  Laying  Out  a  Simple,  Close-String  Stair. 

first  riser  about  9  inches  from  the  end ;  and  number  each  step  in  succes- 
sion. The  thickness  of  the  treads  and  risers  can  be  drawn  bv  using 
thin  strips  of  hardwood  made  the  width  of  the  housing  required. 
Now  allow  for  the  wedges  under  the  treads  and  behind  the  risers,  and 
thus  find  the  exact  width  of  the  housing,  which  should  be  about  f  inch 


175 


24  STAIK-BUILDING 


deep;  the  treads  and  risers  will  reciuire  to  be  made  U  inches  longer 
than  shown  in  the  plan,  to  allow  for  the  housings  at  both  ends. 

Before  putiing  the  stair  together,  be  sure  that  it  can  be  taken 
into  the  house  and  put  in  position  without  trouble.  If  for  any  reason 
it  cannot  be  put  in  after  being  put  together,  then  the  parts  must  be 
assembled,  wedged,  and  ghied  up  at  the  spot. 

It  is  essential  in  laying  out  a  plan  on  the  floor,  that  the  exact 
positions  of  the  first  and  last  risers  be  ascertained,  and  the  height  of 
the  story  wherein  the  stair  is  to  be  placed.  Then  draw  a  plan  of  the 
hall  or  other  room  in  which  the  stairs  will  be  located,  including  sur- 
rounding or  adjoining  parts  of  the  room  to  the  extent  of  ten  or  twelve 
feet  from  the  place  assigned  for  the  foot  of  the  stair.  All  the  door- 
ways, branching  passages,  or  windows  which  can  possibly  come  in 
contact  with  the  stair  from  its  commencement  to  its  expected  ter- 
mination or  landing,  must  be  noted.  The  sketch  must  necessarily  in- 
clude a  portion  of  the  entrance  hall  in  one  part,  and  of  the  lobby  or 
landing  in  another,  and  on  it  must  be  laid  out  all  the  lines  of  the 
stair  from  the  first  to  the  last  riser. 

The  height  of  the  story  must  next  be  exactly  determined  and 
taken  on  the  rod ;  then,  assuming  a  height  of  risers  suitable  to  the  place, 
a  trial  is  made  by  division  in  the  manner  previously  explained,  to 
ascertain  how  often  this  height  is  contained  in  the  height  of  the  story. 
The  quotient,  if  there  is  no  remainder,  will  be  the  number  of  risers 
required.  Should  there  be  a  remainder  on  the  first  division,  the  opera- 
■  tion  is  reversed,  the  number  of  inches  in  the  height  being  made  the 
dividend  and  the  before-found  quotient  the  divisor;  and  the  operation 
of  reduction  by  division  is  carried  on  till  the  height  of  the  riser  is 
obtained  to  the  thirty-second  part  of  an  inch.  These  heights  are  then 
set  off  as  exactly  as  possible  on  the  story  rod,  as  shown  in  Fig.  33. 

The  next  operation  is  to  show  the  risers  on  the  sketch.  This 
the  workman  will  find  no  trouble  in  arranging,  and  no  arbitrary  rule 
can  be  given. 

A  i)art  of  the  foregoing  may  appear  to  be  repetition;  but  it  is  not, 
for  it  must  be  rememl)ered  tliat  scarcely  any  two  flights  of  stairs  are 
alike  in  run,  rise,  or  pitch,  and  any  departure  in  any  one  dimension 
from  these  conditions  leads  to  a  new  series  of  dimensions  that  must 
be  dealt  with  independently.  The  principle  laid  down,  however, 
applies  to  all  straight  flights  of  stairs;  and  the  student  who  has  followed 


176 


STAIR-BUILDING  25 


closely  and  retained  the  pith  of  what  has  been  said,  will,  if  he  has  a 
fair  knowledge  of  the  use  of  tools,  be  fairly  equipped  for  laying  out 
and  constructing  a  plain,  straight  stair  with  a  straight  rail. 

Plain  stairs  may  have  one  platform,  or  several;  and  they  may 
turn  to  the  right  or  to  the  left,  or,  rising  from  a  platform  or  landing, 
may  run  in  an  opposite  direction  from  their  starting  point. 

When  two  flights  are  necessary  for  a  story,  it  is  desirable  that 
each  flight  should  consist  of  the  same  number  of  step.s;  but  this,  of 
course,  will  depend  on  the  form  of  the  staircase,  the  situation  and 
height  of  doors,  and  other  obstacles  to  be  passed  under  or  over,  as 
the  case  may  be. 

In  Fig.  32,  a  stair  is  shown  with  a  single  platform  or  landing  and 
three  newels.  The  first  part  of  this  stair  corresponds,  in  number  of 
risers,  with  the  stair  shown  in  Fig.  33;  the  second  newel  runs  down 
to  the  floor,  and  helps  to  sustain  the  landing.  This  newel  may  simply 
by  a  4  by  4-inch  post,  or  the  whole  space  may  be  inclosed  with  the 
spandrel  of  the  stair.  The  second  flight  starts  from  the  platform  just 
as  the  first  flight  starts  from  the  lower  floor,  and  both  flights  may  be 
attached  to  the  newels  in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  29.  The  bottom 
tread  in  Fig.  32  is  rounded  off  against  the  square  of  the  newel  post; 
but  this  cannot  well  be  if  the  stairs  start  from  the  landing,  as  the  tread 
v/ould  project  too  far  onto  the  platform.  Sometimes,  in  high-class 
stairs,  provision  is  made  for  the  first  tread  to  project  well  onto  the 
landing. 

If  there  are  more  platforms  than  one,  the  principles  of  construc- 
tion will  be  the  same;  so  that  whenever  the  student  grasps  the  full 
conditions  governing  the  construction  of  a  single-platform  stair,  he 
will  be  prepared  to  lay  out  and  construct  the  body  of  any  stair  having 
one  or  more  landings.  The  method  of  laying  out,  making,  and  setting 
up  a  hand-rail  will  be  described  later. 

Stairs  formed  with  treads  each  of  equal  width  at  both  ends,  are 
named  straight  flights;  but  stairs  having  treads  wider  at  one  end  than 
the  other  are  known  by  various  names,  as  winding  stairs,  dog-legged 
stairs,  circular  stairs,, or  elliptical  stairs.  A  tread  with  parallel  sides, 
having  the  same  width  at  each  end,  is  called  a  flyer;  while  one  having 
one  wide  end  and  one  narrow,  is  called  a  winder.  These  terms  will 
often  be  made  use  of  in  what  follows. 


177 


26 


STAIR-BUILDING 


The  elevation  and  plan  of  the  stair  shown  in  Fig.  34  may  be 
called  a  dog-krjgcd  stair  with  three  winders  and  six  fl}'ers.  The  flyers, 
however,  may  be  extended  to  any  number.  The  housed  strings  to 
receive  the  winders  are  shown.  These  strings  show  exactly  the  manner 
of  construction.  The  shorter  string,  in  the  corner  from  1  to  4,  which 
is  shown  in  the  plan  to  contain  the  housing  of  the  first  winder  and 

half  of  the  second,  is  put 
up  first,  the  treads  being 
leveled  by  aid  of  a  spirit 
level;  and  the  longer  upper 
string  is  put  in  place  after- 
wards, butting  snugly 
against  the  lower  string  in 
the  corner.  It  is  then 
fastened  firmly  to  the  wall. 
The  winders  are  cut  snugly 
around  the  newel  post,  and 
well  nailed.  Their  risers 
will  stand  one  above 
another  on  the  post;  and 
the  straight  string  above 
the  wiiiders  will  enter  the 
post  on  a  line  with  the  top 
edge  of  the  uppermost 
winder. 

Platform  stairs  are  often 
constructed  so  that  one 
flight  will  run  in  a  direc- 
tion opposite  to  that  of  the 
other  flight,  as  shown  in  Fig.  35.  In  cases  of  this  kind,  the  landing  or 
})latform  requires  to  have  a  length  more  than  double  that  of  the  treads, 
in  order  that  both  flights  may  have  the  same  width.  Sometimes, 
however,  and  for  various  reasons,  the  upper  flight  is  made  a  little 
narrower  than  the  lower;  but  tliis  expedient  should  be  avoided  when- 
ever possible,  as  its  adoption  unbalances  the  stairs.  In  the  example 
before  us,  eleven  treads,  not  including  the  landing,  run  in  one  direction; 
while  four  treads,  including  the  landing,  run  in  the  opposite  direction; 
or,  as  workmen  put  it,  the  stair  "returns  on  itself."     The  elevation 


Fig.  31. 


Elovafidii  and  Pl.an  of   Dog-Tjep:ged    Stair 
with  Three  Winders  and  Six  Klyers. 


178 


STAIR-BUILDIXC 


27 


\£ 


Lar>dinq      m 


10 


a 


13 


14 


!5 


Newel 


16 


Wall 

Fig.  35.    Plan  of  Platform  Stair  Returning  on  Itself. 

sho^^^l  in  Fio;.  36  illustrates  the  manner  in  which  the  work  is  executed. 
The  various  parts  are  shown  as  follows: 

Fig.  37  is  a  section  of  the  top  landing,  with  baluster  and  rail. 

Fig.  3S  is  part  of  the  long  newel,  showing  mortises  for  the  strings. 


Landinq   I2 

2z=:zz2zrrzzzzz2Z2zzzzzs 


Landing 


Base 


Fig.  36.    Elevation  Showing  Construction  of  Platform  Stair  of  whicli  Plan  is 

Given  in  Fig.  o5. 


179 


28 


STAm-BUIT>DIXG 


>/M/^^M 


t 


Fig.  39  rcprescMits  part  of  the  bottom  newel,  showing  the  string, 
moulding  on  the  outside,  and  cap. 

Fig.  40  is  a  section  of  the  top  string  enlarged. 

Fig.  41  is  the  newel  at  the 'bottom,  as  cut  out  to 
receive  bottom  step.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
there  is  a  cove  under  each  tread .  This  may  be  nailed 
in  after  the  stairs  are  put  together,  and  it  adds  greatly 
to  the  appearance. 

We  may  state  that  stairs  should  have  carriage  'pieces 
FiK.  H7.  scition  fixed  from  floor  to  floor,  under  the  stairs,  to  support 

of   Top   Landiiip,  '  i  i 

Baiuster.amiKaii.  ^hcm.     Tliesc  may  be  notched  under  the  steps;  or 
roucjh  hrachcts  may  be  nailed  to  the  side  of  the  car- 
riaire,  and  carried  under  each  riser  and  tread. 

There  is  also  a  framed  spandrel  which  helps  materially  to  carry 
the  weight,  makes  a  sound  job,  and 
adds  greatly  to  the  appearance.  This 
spandrel  may  be  made  of  ]  {-incli 
material,  with  panels  and  mouldijigs 
on  the  front  side,  as  shown  in  Fig.  30. 
The  joint  between  the  top  and  bottom 
rails  of  the  spandrel  at  the  angle, 
should  be  made  as  shown  in  Fig.  42 
with  a  cross-tongue,  and  glued  and 
fastened  with  long  screws.  Fig.  43  is 
simply  one  of  the  panels  showing  the 


^ 


Fig.  38.     String 


Fig.  39.  Mortises 
in  Liower  Newfl 
for  String,  Out- 
.sideMoulding.and 
Cap. 


miters  on  the  moulding  and  the  shape  Mortises  in  Long 

n    1  •  »       ji  •  Newel. 

of  the  sections.    As  there  is  a  conven- 
ient space  under  the  landing,  it  is  commonly  used  for  a  closet. 

In  setting  out  stairs,  not  only  the  proportions  of  treads  and  risers 
must  be  considered,  but  also  the  material  available. 
As  this  material  runs,  as  a  rule,  in  certain  si^cs,  it  is 
best  to  work  so  as  to  conform  to  it  as  nearly  as 
possible.  In  ordinary  stairs,  11  by  1 -inch  common 
stock  is  used  for  strings  and  treads,  and  7-inch  by 
f-inch  stock  for  risers;  in  stairs  of  a  better  class, 
Fig.  40.  Euiarg-  widcr  and  thicker  material  may  be  used.  The  rails 
ed^sectioiiot  Top     ^^,^  ^^^  ^^  various  heights;  2  feet  8  inches  mav  be 


180 


STAIR-BUILDIXG 


29 


taken  as  an  average  heiglit  on  the  stairs,  and  3  feet  1  inch  on  hincHno-s, 
with  two  balusters  to  each  step. 

In  Fig.  3G,  all  the  newels  and  balusters  are  shown  square;  but 
it  is  much  better,  and' is  the  more  common  practice,  to  have  them 


Newel 


Fig.  41.  Xe-n-el  Cut 
to  Receive  Bottom 
Step. 


Fig.  i2.  Showiug  Method  of  Joining 
Spandrel  Rails,  witti  Cross-Touyue 
Glued  and  Screwed. 


turned,  as  this  gives  the  stairs  a  much  more  artistic  appearance. 
The  spandrel  under  the  string  of  the  stairs\-ay  shows  a  style  in  which 
many  stairs  are  finished  in  hallways  and  other  similar  places.  Plaster 
is  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  panel  work,  but  is  not  nearly  so  good 
as  woodwork.  The  door  under  the  landing  may  open  into  a  closet, 
cr  may  lead  to  a  cellarway,  or  through  to  some  other  room. 

In  stairs  with  winders,  the  width  of  a  winder  should,  if  possible, 
be  nearly  the  width  of  the  regular  tread,  at 
a  distance  of  14  inches  from  the  narrow 
end,  so  that  the  length  of  the  step  in 
walking  up  or  down  the  stairs  may  not 
be  interrupted;  and  for  this  reason  and 
several  others,  it  is  always  best  to  have 
three  winders  only  in  each  quarter-turn. 
Above  all,  avoifl  a  four-winder  turn,  as 
this  makes  a  breakneck  stair,  which  is 
more  difficult  to  construct  and  incon- 
venient  to  use. 

Bidlnose  Tread.  No  other  stair,  perhaps,  looks  so  well  at  the 
starting  point  as  one  having  a  hidinosc  step.  In  Fig.  44  are  shown  a 
plan  and  elevation  of  a  flight  of  stairs  having  a  bullnose  tread.  The 
method  of  obtaining  the  lines  and  setting  out  the  body  of  the  stairs, 


Mouldin 


Fig.  AX  Panel  in  Spandrel.  Sho'w 

iug  Miiei-.s  ou  Moulding,  and 

Shape  of  Section." 


181 


30 


STAIR- BUILDING 


is  the  same  as  has  ahvady  been  explained  for  other  stairs,  with  the 
exception  of  the  first  two  steps,  which  are  made  with  circular  ends, 
as  shown  in  tlie  plan.  These  circular  ends  are  worked  out  as  here- 
after described,  and  are  attached  to  the  newel  and  string  as  shown. 


Scale  of& 


^Feet 


y^ 


Fig.  44.    Elevation  and  Plan  of  Stair  with  Bullnose  Tread. 

The  example  shows  an  open,  cut  string  with  brackets.  The  spandrel 
under  the  string  contains  short  panels,  and  makes  a  very  handsome 
finish.  The  newels  and  balusters  in  this  case  are  turned,  and  the  latter 
have  cutwork  panels  between  them. 


18^ 


STAIR-BUILDING 


31 


Fig.  45.  Section 
through  Bullnose 
Step. 


Bullnose  steps  are  usually  built  up  with  a  three- 
piece  block,  as  shown  in  Fig.  45,  which  is  a  sec- 
tion through  the  step  indicating  the  blocks,  tread, 
and  riser. 

Fig.  46  is  a  plan  showing  how  the  veneer  of  the 
riser  is  prepared  before  being  bent  into  position.  The  block  /I  indi- 
cates a  wedge  which  is  glued  and  driven  home  after  the  veneer  is 
put  in  place.  This  tightens  up  the  work  and  makes  it  sound  and 
clear.  Figs.  47  and  48  show  other  methods  of  forming  bullnose  steps. 
Fig.  49  is  the  side  elevation  of  an  open-string  stair  with  bullnose 
steps    at     the    bottom; 

.showing  the  lower  end 
of  the  string,  and  the 
manner  in  which  it  is 
prepared   for   fixing    to 

the  blocks    of    the    step.       Fig.  i%.    Plan  showing  Preparation  of  Veneer  before 

,  Bending  into  Position. 

Fig.    51     is    a    section 

through  the  string,  showing  the  bracket,  cove,  and  projection  of  tread 

over  same. 

Figs.  52  and  53  show  respectively  a  plan  and  vertical  section  of 
the  bottom  part  of  the  stair.  The  blocks  are  shown  at  the  ends  of  the 
steps  (Fig.  53),  with  the  veneered  parts  of  the  risers  going  round  them; 
also  the  position  where  the  string  is  fixed  to  the  blocks  (Fig.  52) ;  and 


Ne^A/e1 


'^/M//MM//A 


Fig.  47 


Methods  of  Forming  Bullnose  Steps. 


Fig.  48. 


the  tenon  of  the  newel  is  marked  on  the  upper  step.  The  section  (Fig. 
53)  shows  the  manner  in  which  the  blocks  are  built  up  and  the  newel 
tenoned  into  them. 


1R9 


32 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Fig. 49.    Side  Klevation  of  Open-Strin 
Stair  with  BuUnose  Steps. 


The  newel,  Fig.  49,  is  rather  an 
elaborate  affair,  being  carved  at  the 
base  and  Oii  the  body,  and  having 
a  carved  rosette  planted  in  a  small, 
sunken  panel  on  tliree  sides,  the  rail 
butting  against  the  fourth  side. 

Open-Newel  Stairs.  Before  leav- 
ing the  subject  of  straight  and  dog- 
logired  stairs,  the  student  should  be 
made  familiar  with  at  least  one 
example  of  an  open-newel  stair.  As 
the  same  principles  of  construction 
govern  all  styles  of  open-newel 
stairs,  a  single  example  will  be  sufficient.  The  student  must,  of 
course,  understand  that  he  himself  is  the  greatest  factor  in  planning 
stairs  of  this  type;  that  the  setting  out  and  design- 
ing will  generally  devolve  on  him.  By  exercising 
a  litde  thought  and  foresight,  he  can  so  arrange 
his  plan  that  a  minimum  of  both  labor  and  material 
will  be  recjuired. 

Fig.   54  shows  a  plan  of  an  open-newel  stair 

having  two  landings  and  closed  strings,  shown  in 

elevation  in  Fig.  55.    The  dotted  lines  show  the 

carriage  timbers  and  trimmers,  also  the  lines  of 

risers;  while  the  treads  are  shown  by  full  lines. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  strings  and  trimmers 

at  the  first  landing  are  framed  into  the  shank  of  the  second  newel 

post,  which  runs  down  to  the  floor;  while  the  top  newel  drops  below 
the  fascia,  and  has  a  turned  and  carved  drop.  This  drop 
hangs  below  both  the  fascia  and  the  string.  The  lines 
of  treads  and  risers  are  shown  by  dotted  lines  and 
crosshatchcd  sections.  The  position  of  the  carriage 
timbers  is  shown  both  in  the  landings  and  in  the  runs 
Ki-. r.i.  Sf.iiou  of  the  stairs,  the  projecting  ends  of  these  timbers  being 
luiit'i.  ti  ug.    j.^,ppQ^^,(]  t(j  i^g  resting  on  the  wall.    A  scale  of  the  plan 

and  elevation  is  attached  to  the  ])lan.  In  Fig.  55,  a  story  rod  is 
.shown  at  the  right,  with  the  numl)er  oi  ri.sers  spaced  oft'  thereon. 
The  design  of  the  newels,  spandrel,  framing,  and  paneling  is  shown. 


Fig.  .50.  Lower  End 
of  Siring  to  Connect 
with    BuUuose  Step. 


184 


STAIR-BUILDING 


33 


Fig.  53.    Plan  of  Bottom  Part 
of  BuUuose  Stall" 


Fig.  .53.    Vertical  Section  through 
Bottom  Part  of  Bullnose  Stair. 


Only  the  central  carriage  timbers  are  shown  in  Fig.  54;  but  in  a 
stair  of  this  width,  there  ought  to  be  two  other  timbers,  not  so  heavy, 
perhaps,  as  the  central  one,  yet  strong  enough  to  be  of  service  in  lend- 
ing additional  strength  to  the  stairway,  and  also  to  help  carry  the  laths 
and  plaster  or  the  paneling  which  may  be  necessary  in  completing 
the  under  side  or  soffit.  The  strings  being  closed,  the  butts  of  their 
balusters  must  rest  on  a  subrail  which  caps  the  upper  edge  of  the 
outer  string. 


^ 


^■ 


V 


^ 


'.\ 


^---Tf--^ 


JJ 


4f 


a 


-w 


Well -Hole 


I!! 

5ll 


^:-jJ:i:i:.g 


Qjll 

Hi!i 
.3!i; 


tr 


—J 


Carnage  _, 


-i.\ 


Vr 


it- 


—  i 


I 


S' 


n 


7  Feet 


-B 


Fig.  54.    Plan  of  Open-Newel  Stair,  with  Two  Landings  and  Closed  Strings. 


185 


34 


STAIR-BUILDING 


The  first  newel  should  pass  through  the  lower  floor,  and,  to 
insure  solidity,  should  be  secured  by  bolts  to  a  joist,  as  shown  in  the 
elevation.  The  rail  is  attached  to  the  newels  in  the  usual  manner, 
with  handrail  bolts  or  other  suitable  device.  The  upper  newel  should 
be  made  fast  to  the  joists  as  shown,  either  by  b-olts  or  in  some  other 


Fig.  55.     Elfvatioii  of  Open-Newel  Stair  Shown  in  Pliui  in  Fig.  51. 

eflicient  manner.  The  intermediate  newels  are  left  .square  on  the 
.•^liank  below  tlie  .stairs,  and  may  be  fastened  in  the  floor  below  either 
by  morti.H*'  and  tenon  or  by  making  u.se  of  joint  bolts. 

Everything  about  a  stair  .should  be  made  solid  and  .sound;  and 
every  joint  should  .set  firmly  and  elo.sely;  or  a  .shaky,  rickety,  .sijueaky 
.stair  will  be  the  result,  which  is  an  abomination. 

Stairs  with  Curved  Turns.  Sufficient  e.\am})les  of  .stairs  having 
angles  of  greater  or  less  degree  at  t^j;  tin-n  or  change  of  direction,  to 


18B 


HALL  AND  PARTIALLY  ENCLOSED   STAIRCASE  IN   LONG   HALL,  GREYROCKS,  ROCKPORT.  MASS. 

Frank  Chouteau  Brown,  Architect,  Boston,  Mass. 
For  Plans  and  Exteriors,  See  Vol.  I,  Pages  272,  282,  and  299. 


HALL  AND  STAIRCASE  IN  HOUSE  AT  WOLLASTON,  MASS, 
Frank  Chouteau  BijQYfn,  Architect 


STAIR.BUILDIXG 


35 


enable  the  student  to  build  any  stair  of  this  class,  have  now  been 
given.  There  are,  however,  other  types  of  stairs  in  common  use, 
whose  turns  are  curved,  and  in  which  newels  are  employed  only  at 
the  foot,  and  sometimes  at  the  finish  of  the  flight.  These  curved  turns 
may  be  any  part  of  a  circle,  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  case, 
but  turns  of  a  quarter-circle  or  half-circle  are  the  more  common. 
The  string  forming  the  curve  is  called  a  cylinder,  or  part  of  a  cylinder, 
as  the  case  may  be.  The  radius  of  this  circle  or  cylinder  may  be  any 
length,  according  to  the  space  assigned  for  the  stair.  The  opening 
around  which  the  stair  winds  is  called  the  icell-hole. 

Fig.  56  shows  a  portion  of  a  stairway  having  a  well-hole  with 
a  7-inch  radius.  This  stair  is  rather  peculiar,  as  it  shows  a  quarter- 
space  landing,  and  a  quarter-space  having 
three  winders.  The  reason  for  this  is  the 
fact  that  the  landing  is  on  a  level  with  the 
floor  of  another  room,  into  which  a  door 
opens  from  the  landing.  This  is  a  problem 
very  often  met  with  in  practical  work, 
w'here  the  main  stair  is  often  made  to  do 
the  work  of  two  flights  because  of  one  floor 
being  so  much  lower  than  another. 

A  curved  stair,  sometimes  called  a 
geometrical  stair,  is  shown  in  Fig.  57, 
containing  seven  winders  in  the  cylinder 
or     well -hole,     the    first    and    last    aligning    with    the    diameter. 

In  Fig.  58  is  shown  another  example  of  this  kind  of  stair,  con- 
taining nine  winders  in  the  well-hole,  with  a  circular  wall-string. 
It  is  not  often  that  stairs  are  built  in  this  fashion,  as  most  stairs  having 
a  circular  well-hole  finish  against  the  wall  in  a  manner  similar  to  that 
shown  in  Fig.  57. 

Sometimes,  however,  the  workman  will  be  confronted  with  a 
plan  such  as  shown  in  Fig.  58;  and  he  should  know  how  to  lay  out 
the  wall-string.  In  the  elevation.  Fig.  58,  the  string  is  shown  to  be 
straight,  similar  to  the  string  of  a  common  straight  flight.  This  results 
from  having  an  equal  width  in  the  winders  along  the  wall-string,  and, 
as  we  have  of  necessity  an  equal  width  in  the  risers,  the  development 
of  the  string  is  merely  a  straight  piece  of  board,  as  in  an  ordinary 
straight  flight.    In  laying  out  the  string,  all  we  have  to  do  is  to  make 


4- 

f 

7- 

6 

^ 

> 

i 

>■ 
0 

8 

-IB 

[T 

0) 

1 

w 

1 

Landing 

r 

< 

// 

(-lA^ 

Fie.  56.    Stair  Serving  for  Two 

Flights,  with  Mid-Floor 

Landing. 


187 


36 


STAIR-BUILDING 


a  coininon  pitch-hoard,  and,  with  it  as  a  templet,  mark  the  hues  of 
the  treads  and  risers  on  a  straiglit  piece  of  board,  as  shown  at  1,  2,  3, 
4,  etc. 

If  you  can  manage  to  bend  the  string  without  kerfing  (grooving), 
it  will  be  all  the  better;  if  not,  the  kerfs  (grooves)  must  be  parallel  to 
the  rise.    You  can  set  oiit  with  a  straight  edge,  full  size,  on  a  rough 

platform,  just  as  shown  in  the  diagram;  and 
W'hen  the  string  is  bent  and  set  in  place,  the 
risers  and  winders  will  have  their  correct 
positions. 

To  bend  these  strings  or  otherwise  prepare 
them  for  fastening  against  the  wall,  perhaps 
the  easiest  way  is  to  saw  the  string  with  a  fine 
saw,  across  the  face,  making  parallel  grooves. 
This  method  of  bending  is  called  kerpig, 
above  referred  to.  The  kerfs  or  grooves 
must  be  cut  parallel  to  the  lines  of  the  risers,  so  as  to  be  vertical  when 
the  string  is  in  place.  This  method,  however — handy  though  it  may 
be — is  not  a  good  one,  inasmuch  as  the  saw  groove  will  show  more  or 
less  in  the  finished  work. 

Another  method  is  to  build  up  or  stave  the  string.    There  are 


Fig.  57.    Geometrical  Stair 
with  Seven  Winders. 


Baee 


a     9     Line 


Plan 


Fig.  58.    Plan  of  Circular  Stair  and  Layout  of  Wall  String 

for  Same. 


several  ways  of  doing  this.  In  one,  comparatively  narrow  pieces  are 
cut  to  the  required  curve  or  to  portions  of  it,  and  are  fastened  together, 
edge  to  edge,  w'ith  glue  and  screws,  until  the  necessary  width  is 
obtained  (see  Fig.  59).  The  heading  joints  may  be  either  butted  or 
beveled,  the  latter  being  stronger,  and  should  be  cross-tongued. 

Fig.  GO  shows  a  method  that  may  be  followed  when  a  wide  string 
is  required,  or  a  piece  curbed  in  the  direction  of  its  width  is  needed 


188 


STAIR-BUILDING 


37 


for  any  purpose.  The  pieces  arc  stepped  over  each  otlier  to  suit  the 
desired  curve;  and  though  shown  square-edged  in  the  figure,  they  are 
usually  cut  beveled,  as  then,  by  reversing  them,  two  may  be  cut  out 
of  a  batten. 

Panels  and  quick  sweeps  for  similar  purposes  are  obtained  in  the 
manner  shown  in  Fig.  61,  by  joining  up  narrow  boards  edge  to  edge 


Fiff.  59. 


Methods  Of  Building  Up  Strings. 


Fig.  60. 


at  a  suitable  bevel  to  give  the  desired  curve.  The  internal  curve  is 
frequently  worked  approximately,  before  gluing  up.  The  numerous 
joints  incidental  to  these  methods  limit  their  uses  to  painted  or  unim- 
portant work. 

In  Fig.  62  is  shown  a  WTeath-piece  or  curved  portion  of  the 
outside  string  rising  around  the  cylinder  at  the  half-space. 
This  is  formed  by  reducing  a  short  piece  of  string  to  a  veneer 
between  the  springings;  bending  it  upon  a  cylinder  made  to  fit  the 
plan;  then,  when  it  is  secured  in  position,  filling  up  the  back  of  the 
veneer  with  staves  glued  across  it;  and,  finally,  gluing  a  piece  of  canvas 
over  the  whole.  The  appearance  of  the 
wreath-pi  ce  after  it  has  been  built  up  and 
removed  i.-om  the  cylinder  is  indicated  in 
Fio;.  63.  The  canvas  back  has  been  omitted 
to  show  the  staving;  and  the  counter- wedge 
key  used  for  connecting  the  wreath-piece 
with  the  string  is  shown.  The  wreath- 
piece  is,  at  this  stage,  ready  for  marking 
the  outlines  of  the  steps. 

Fig.  62  also  shows  the  drum  or  shape  around  which  strings  may 
be  bent,  whether  the  strings  are  formed  of  veneers,  staved,  or  kerfed. 
Another  drum  or  shape  is  shown  in  Fig.  64.  In  this,  a  portion  of  a 
cylinder  is  formed  in  the  manner  clearly  indicated;  and  the  string, 
being  set  out  on  a  veneer  board  sufficiently  thin  to  bend  easily,  is  laid 


Fig.  61. 


Buikling  Up  a  Curved 
Panel  or  Quick  Sweep. 


189 


38 


STAIR-BUILDING 


down  round  the  cun'c,  such  a  number  of  pieces  of  hke  thickness  being 
then  ackled  as  will  make  the  required  thickness  of  the  string.  In 
working  this  methotl,  glue  is  introduced  between  the  veneers,  which 


Fig.  63.    Wroath- 

Piece  Bent 
around  Cylinder. 


Fig.  a"?.  CompletedWrealh- 
Piece  Removed  from 
Cylinder. 


Fig.  64.    Another  Drum  or 

Shape   for    JUiilding 

Curved  Strings. 


are  then  (juiekly  strained  down  to  the  curved  piece  with  hand  screws. 
A  string  of  almost  any  length  can  be  formed  in  this  way,  by  gluing 
a  few  feet  at  a  time,  and  when  that  dries,  removing  the  cylindrical 
curve  and  gluing  down  more,  until  the  whole  is  completed.  Several 
other  methods  will  suggest  them.selves  to  the  workman,  of  building  up 
good,  solid,  circular  strings. 

One  method  of  laying  out  the  treads  and  risers  around  a  cylinder 
or  drum,  is  shown  in  Fig.  65.  The  line  D  shows  the  curve  of  the  rail. 
The  lines  showing  treads  and  risers  may  be  marked  off  on  the  cylinder, 
or  they  may  be  marked  off  after  the  veneer  is  bent  around  the  drum  or 
cylinder. 

There  are  various  methods  of  making  inside  cylinders  or  wells, 
and  of  fastening  same  to  strings.  One  method  is  shown  in  Fig.  G6. 
This  gives  a  strong  joint  when  properly  made.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
the  cylinder  is  notched  out  on  the  back;  the  two  blocks  shown  at  the 
back  of  the  offsets  are  wedges  driven  in  to  secure  the  cylinder  in  place, 
and  to  drive  it  up  tight  to  the  strings.  Fig.  67  shows  an  8-inch  well- 
hole  with  cylinder  complete;  also  the  method  of  trimming  and  finish- 
ing same.  The  cylinder,  too,  is  shown  in  such  a  manner  that  its  con- 
struction will  be  readily  understood. 

Stairs  having  a  cylindrical  or  circular  opening  always  require 
a  weight  support  underneath  them.  This  support,  which  is  generally 
made  of  rough  lumber,  is  called  the  carriage,  because  it  is  supposed 


190 


STAIR-BUILDIXG 


39 


to  carry  any  reasonable  load  that  may  be  placed  upon  the  stairway. 
Fig.  6S  shows  the  under  side  of  a  half-space  stair  having  a  carriage 
beneath  it.    The  timbers  marked  S  are  of  rough  stuff,  and  may  be 
2-inch  by  6-incli  or  of  greater  dimensions.     If  they 
are  cut  to  fit  the  risers  and  treads,  they  will  require 
to  be  at  least  2-inch  by  S-inch. 

In  preparing  the  rough  carriage  for  the 
winder^,  it  will  be  best  to  let  the  back  edge  of  the 
tread  project  beyond  the  back  of  the  riser  so  that  it 
forms  a  ledge  as  shown  under  C  in  Fig.  69.  Then 
fix  the  cross-carriage  pieces  under  the  winders, 
with  the  back  edge  about  flush  with  the  backs 
of  risers,  securing  one  end  to  the  well  with  screws, 
and  the  other  to  the  wall  string  or  the  wall.  Now 
cut  short  pieces,  marked  0  0  (Fig.  68),  and  fix  them  tightly  in  between 
the  cross-carriage  and  the  back  of  the  riser  as  at  5  6  in  the  section. 
Fig.  69.  These  carriages  should  be  of  3-inch  by  2-inch  material. 
Now  get  a  piece  of  wood,  1-inch  by  3-inch,  and  cut  pieces  C  C  to  fit 
tightly  between  the  top  back  edge  of  the  winders  (or  the  ledge)  and 
the  pieces  marked  B  B  in  section.  This  method  makes  a  \exy 
sound  and  strong  job  of  the  winders;  and  if  the  stuff  is  roughly 
planed,  and  blocks  are  glued  on  each  side  of  the  short  cross-pieces 
0  0  0,  it  is  next  to  impossible  for  the  winders  ever  to  spring  or 
squeak.    When  the  weight  is  carried  in  this  manner,  the  plasterer  will 


Fig.  65.    Laying  Out 

Treads  and  Risers 

around  a  Drum. 


i::-'^. 


Fig.  OC.     One  :Metbod 

of  Making  an  Inside 

Well. 


Fig.  6"     Construction  and 
Trimming  of  8-Inch. 
Well-Hole. 


.have  very  little  trouble  in  lathing  so  that  a  graceful  soffit  will  be  made 
under  the  stairs. 

The  manner  of  placing  the  main  stringers  of  the  carriage  S  S, 
is  shown  at  .1,  Fig.  69.     Fig.  68  .shows  a  complete  half-space  stair; 


191 


40 


STAIR-Bnr.DIXG 


one-half  of  this,  finished  as  shown,  will  answer  well  for  a  quarter-spaee 
stair. 

Another  method  of  forming  a  carriage  for  a  stair  is  shown  in 
Fig.  70.  Tins  is  a  pecnliar  but  very  handsome  stair,  inasmuch  as  the 
first  and  the  last  four  steps  are  parallel,  but  the  remainder  balance  or 
datice.    The  treads  are  numbered  in  this  illustration ;  antl  the  plan  of 

the  handrail  is  shown  ex- 
tending from  the  scroll  at 
the  bottom  of  the  stairs  to 
the  landing  on  the  second 
story.*  The  trimmer  T  at 
the  top  of  the  stairs  is  also 
shown ;  and  the  rough  strings 
or  carriages,  R  S,R  S,  R  S, 
are  represented  by  dotted 
lini's. 

This  plan  represents  a 
stair  with  a  curtail  step, 
and  a  scroll  handrail  rest- 
iiii"-  over  the  curve  of  the 
curtail  step.  This  type  of 
stair  is  not  now  much  in 
vogue  in  this  c  o  u  n  t  r  y, 
though  it  is  adopted  occa- 
sionally in  some  of  the  larger  cities.  The  use  of  heavy  newel  posts 
instead  of  curtail  steps,  is  the  prevailing  style  at  present. 

In  laying  out  geometrical  stairs,  the  steps  are  arranged  on  prin- 
ciples already  described.  The  well-hole  in  the  center  is  first  laid  down 
and  the  steps  arranged  around  it.  In  circular  stairs  with  an  open  well- 
hole,  the  handrail  being  on  the  inner  side,  the  width  of  tread  for  the 
steps  should  be  set  ort"  at  about  18  inches  from  the  handrail,  this 
giving  an  approximately  uniform  rate  of  progress  for  anyone  ascending 
or  descending  the  stairway.  In  stairs  with  the  rail  on  the  outside,  as 
sometimes  occurs,  it  will  be  sufficient  if  the  treads  have  the  proper 
width  at  the  middle  point  of  their  length. 

Where  a  flight  of  stairs  will  likely  be  subject  to  great  stress  and 
wear,  the  carriages  should  be  made  much  heavier  than  indicated  in 


^       B                           1 

\ 

5       S 

S 

Fig.  OS.    Umler  Side  of  Il:Uf-Sp:xc-e  Stair,  with 
Carriages  aud  Cross;Carriage.s. 


192 


STAIR-BUILDING 


41 


m^ 


Fig.  63.    Method  of  Reinforcing  Stair. 


the  foregoing  figure.s;  uikI  there  may  be  cases  when  it  will  be  necessary 

to  use  iron  bolts  in  the  sides  of  the  rough  strings  in  order  to  give  them 

greater  strength.    This  necessity,  however,  will  arise  only  in  the  case 

of  stairs  built  in  public  buildings, 
churches,  halls,  factories,  ware- 
houses, or  other  buildings  of  a  simi- 
lar kind.  Sometimes,  even  in  house 
stairs,  it  may  be  wise  to  strengthen 
the  treads  and  risers  by  spiking 
pieces  of  board  to  the  rough  string, 
ends  up,  fitting  them  snugly  against 
the  under  side  of  the  tread  and  the 

back  of  the  riser.    The  method  of  doing  this  is  shown  in  Fig.  71,  in 

which  the  letter  0  shows  the  pieces  nailed  to  the  string. 

Types  of  Stairs  in  Common  Use.     In  order  to  make  the  student 

familiar  with  types  of  stairs  in  general  use  at  the  present  day,  plans 

of  a  few  of  those  most  likelv 

to  be  met  with  will  now  be 

given. 

Fig.  72  is  a  plan  of  a 

straight  stair,  with  an  ordi- 
nary  cylinder    at   the    top 

provided  for  a   return   rail 

on    the    landing.       It    also 

shows  a  stretch-out  stringer 

at  the  starting. 

Fig.  73  is  a  plan  of  a 

stair  with    a    lantling   and 

return  steps. 

Fig.  74  is  a  plan  of  a 

stair  with  an  acute  angular 

landing  and  cylinder. 

Fig.    75  illustrates  the 

same  kind  of  stair  as  Fig.  74,  the    angle,   however,    being   obtuse. 
Fig.  7G  exhibits  a  stair  having  a  half-turn  with  two  risers  on  land- 


Fig.  70.  Plan  Showing  One  Method  of  Constructing 
Carriage  and  Triimuiug  Winding  Stair. 


ings. 


Fig.  77  is  a  plan  of  a  quarter-space  stair  with  four  winders. 
Fig.  78  shows  a  stair  similar  to  Fig.  77,  but  with  six  winders. 


193 


42 


STAIH-BUILDIXG 


I 

\ 

Fig.  72.     Plan  of   Straicht   Stair  with 
Cylinder  at  Top  for  Return  Kail. 


Fig.  79  shows  a  stair  having  five 


Fig.  71.    Reinforcing:  Treatls  anrt  Ri-sers 
by  Blocks  Nailed  to  String. 


dancing  winders. 

Fig.  80  is  a  plan  of  a  half-space 
stair  having  five  dancing  winders 
and  a  quarter-space  landing. 
Fig.  SI  .shows  a  half-space  stair  with  dancing  winders  all  around 
the  cylinder. 

Fig.  82  shows  a  geometrical  stair  having 
^^■iIlders  all  around  the  cylinder. 

Fig.  83  shows  the  plan  and  elevation  of 
stairs  which  turn  around  a  central  post.  This 
kind  of  stair  is  frequently  used  in  large  stores 
and  in  clubhouses  and  other  similar  places, 
and  has  a  very  graceful  appearance.  It  is  not 
^•cI•y  difficult  to  build  if  properly  planned. 

Tlie  only  form  of  stair  not  shown  which  the 
student  may  be  called  upon  to  build,  would 
very  likely  be  one  having  an  elliptical  plan; 
l)ut,  as  this  form  is  so  seldom  u.scd — being 
Fig.  7x    Plan  of  Stair  viih     foniul,  ill  fact,  ouly  ill  public  buildiiigs    or 

I.iandiug  and  Return  steps.  ^  •  i      c 

great  mansions — it  rarely  falls  to  the  lot  of 
the  ordinary  workman  to  be  called  upon  to  design  or  construct  a 
stairway  of  this  type. 


^ 

J 

Fig.  74.  I'lan  of  Stair  with  Acute- Angle 
Landing  and  Cylinder. 


Fig.  75.  Plan  of  Stair  with  Obtuse- Angle 
Lauding  and  Cylinder. 


194 


STAIR-BUILDING 


43 


Fig.  77.     Quarter-Space  Stair  with 
Four  Winders. 


Fig.  76.  Halt-Turn  Stair  with 
Two  Risers  on  Landings. 


Fig.  79.    Stair  with  Five  Dancing  Winders. 


) 


Fig.  78.    Quarter- Space  Stair  with  Six 
Winders. 


Fig.  81.    Half-Space  Stair  with 

Dancing     Winders      all 

around  Cylinder. 


GEOMETRICAL    STAIRWAYS    AND 
HANDRAILINQ 


Fig.  80.   Half-space  Stair  with         ^he  term  geometrical  is  applied  to  stair- 

"^SiS^SlclLandtnT  ^"^^^  ^^'^^'"^g  ^^")'  ^''''^  ^^  ^^^^'^  ^«^  '^    P^'^"" 

The  rails  over  the  steps  are  made  con- 
tinuous from  one  story  to  another.  The  resulting  winding  or 
twisting  pieces  are  called  wreaths. 

Wreaths.  The  construction  of  wreaths  is  based  on  a  few 
geometrical  problems — namely,  the  projection  of  straight  and  curved 
lines  into  an  oblique  plane;  and  the  finding  of  the  aigle  of  inclination 
of  the  plane  into  which  the  lines  and  curves  are  projected.    This  angle 


195 


44 


STAIR-BUILDIXG 


Fitr.  82.  Geometrical  Stair  with 
VViutlers  all  Arouud  fvliiKler. 


Fig.  83.     Plan  and  Eleva- 
tion of  Stair.s  Turning 
around  a  Central 
Post. 


is  calk'tl  the  bevel,    and    by    its    use 
the    wreath  is  made  to  twist. 

In  Fig.  84  is  shown  an  obtuse- 
ill^  angle  plan;  in  Fig.  85,  an  acute-angle 
])lan;  and  in  Fig.  86,  a  semicircle  en- 
closed within  .straight  lines. 

Projection.  A  knowledge  of  how 
to  project  the  lines  and  curves  in  each 
of  these  plans  into  an  oblique  plane, 
and  to  find  the  angle  of  inclination  of 
the  plane,  will  enable  the  student  to 
construct  any  and  all  kinds  of  wreaths. 

The  straight  lines  a,  h,  c,  d  in  the  plan.  Fig.  8G,  are  known  as 
tangents;  and  the  curve,  the  central  line  of  the  plan  wreath. 

The  straight  line  across  from  n  to  n  is  the  diameter;  and  the 
perpendicular  line  from  it  to  the  lines  c  and  h  is  the  radius. 

A  tangent  line  may  be  defined  as  a  line  touching  a  curve  without 
cutting  it,  and  is  made  use  of  in  handrailing  to  square  the  joints  of  the 
wreaths. 

Tangent  System.  The  tangent  system  of  bandrailing  takes  its 
name  from  the  use  made  of  the  tangents  for  this  purpose. 

In  Fig.  86,  it  is  shown  that  the  joints  connecting  the  central  line 
of  rail  with  the  plan  rails  \o  of  the  straight  flights,  are  placed  right  at 
the  springing;  that  is,  they  are  in  line  with  the  diameter  of  the  semi- 
circle, and  .square  to  the  side  tangents  a  and  d. 

The  center  joint  of  the  crown  tangents  is  shown  to  be  square  to 
tangent.s  h  and  c.  When  these  lines  are  projected  into  an  oblique 
plane,  the  joints  of  the  wreaths  can  be  made  to  butt  square  by  applying 
the  bevel  to  them. 


106 


STAIR-BUILDING 


45 


Fig.  84.    Obtuse- Angle  Plan. 


plane 


Jbmt 


All  handrail  wrcath.s  are  assumed  to  rest  on  an  oblique  plane 
while  ascending  around  a  well-hole,  either  in  connecting  two  flights 
or  in  connecting  one  flight  to  a 
landing,  as  the  case  may  be.  /Tanqem 

In  the  simplest  cases  of 
construction,  the  wreath  rests 
on  an  inclined  plane  that  in- 
clines in  one  direction  only,  to 

either  side  of  the  well-hole ;  while  in  other  cases  it  rests  on  a 
that  inclines  to  two  sides. 

Fig.  87  illustrates  what  is  meant  by  a  plane  inclining  in  one 

direction.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  the  lower  part  of  the  figure 
is  a  reproduction  of  the  cjuad- 
rant  enclosed  by  the  tangents 
a  and  b  in  Fig.  86.  The 
quadrant.  Fig.  87,  represents  a 
central  line  of  a  wreath  that  is 
to  ascend  from  the  joint  on  the 
plan  tangent  a  the  height  of  h 
above  the  tangent  b. 

In  Fig.  88,  a  view  of  Fig.  87 
is  given  in  which  the  tangents  a 
and  b  are  shown  in  plan,  and  also  the  quadrant  representing  the  plan 
central  line  of  a  wreath.  The  curved  line  extending:  from  a  to  h  in 
this  figure  represents  the  development  of  the  central  line  of  the  plan 
wreath,  and,  as  shown,  it  rests  on  an  oblique  plane  inclining  to  one 
side  onlv — namelv,  to  the  side  of 
the  plan  tangent  a.  The  joints 
are  made  square  to  the  devel- 
oped tangents  a  and  7?i  of  the  in- 
clined plane;  it  is  for  this 
purpose  only  that  tangents  are 
made  use  of  in  wreath  construc- 
tion. They  are  shown  in  the 
figure  to  consist  of  two  lines, 
a  and  m,  which  are  two  adjoining 
sides  of  a  developed  section  (in  Fig.  86.   semicircular  pian. 


Fig.  85.    Acute- Angle  Plan. 


Joint 


b 

/ 

c 

a 

^ 

.2 

IS 

\ 

d 

n 

^  Joint 

Joint  ^ 

n 

] 

Diameter 

1 

vy 

w 

1 

1 
p 

LJ 

X97 


46 


STAIR-BUILDIXG 


Joint 

FiR.  R7.    Illustrating:  Plane 

Inclined    in  One  Direction 

Only. 


this  case,  of  a  sc|uare  prism),  the  section  being  the  assumed  inchned 
plane  whereon  the  wreath  rests  in  its  ascent  from  a  to  h.  The  joint  at  h, 
if  made  square  to  the  tangent  ni,  will  be  a  true,  square  butt-joint;  so 

also  will  be  the  joint  at  a,  if  made  square  to 
the  tangent  a. 

In  practical  work  it  will  be  required  to  find 
the  correct  goemetrical  angle  between  the  two 
developed  tangents  a  and  m;  and  here-,  again, 
it  may  be  observed  that  the  finding  of  the 
Joint  correct  angle  between  the  two  developed 
tangents  is  the  essential  purpose  of  every 
tangent  system  of  handrailing. 

In  Fig.  89  is  shown  the  geometrical  solu- 
tion— the  one  necessary  to  find  the  angle 
between  the  tangents  as  required  on  the  face- 
mould  to  square  the  joints  of  the  wreath. 
The  figure  is  shown  to  be  similar  to  Fig.  87, 
except  that  it  has  an  additional  portion 
marked  "Section."  This  section  is  the  true  shape  of  the  oblique  plane 
whereon  the  wreath  ascends,  a  view  of  which  is  given  in  Fig.  8S.  It 
will  be  observed  that  one  side  of  it  is  the  developed  tangent  m;  another 
side,  the  developed  tangent  a"  (=  a). 
The  angle  between  the  two  as  here 
presented  is  the  one  required  on  tlu>  face- 
mould  to  square  the  joints. 

In  this  example,  Fig.  89,  owing  to 
the  plane  being  obli(jue  in  one  direction 
only,  the  shape  of  the  .section  is  found  by 
merely  drawing  the  tangent  a"  at  riglit 
angles  to  the  tangent  m,  making  it  equal 
in  length  to  the  level  tangent  a  in  the 
plan.  By  drawing  lines  parallel  to  a" 
and  m  re.spectively,  the  form  of  the  section 
will  be  found,  its  outlines  being  the  por- 
jections  of  the  plan  lines;  and  the  angle 

between  the  two  tangents,  as  already  saiil,  is  the  angle  required  on 
the  face-moukl  to  scjuare  the  joints  of  the  wreath. 

The  solution  here  presented  will  enable  the  student  to  find  the 


Tanqent  a 


Fig.  88.    Plan  Line  of  Rail  Pro- 
jected intfX^iiliqufPlant'Incliued 
to  One  Side  Only. 


198 


STAIR-BUILDING 


47 


Joint 


<> 

> 

-Tanqe-nt-y 
\           / 

\/          b 

a 

/       Plan 

Joint 

Joint 


correct  direction  of  the  tangents'  as  required  on  the  face-mould  to 
square  joints,  in  all  cases  of  practical  work  where  one  tangent  of  a 
wreath  is  level  and  the  other  tangent  is  inclined,  a  condition  usually 
met  with  in  level-landing  stairways. 

Fig.  90  exhibits  a  condition  of  tangents  where  the  two  are  equally 
inclined.  The  plan  here  also  is  taken  from  Fig.  S6.  The  inclination 
of  the  tangents  is  made  equal 
to  the  inclination  of  tangent  h 
in  Fig.  86,  as  shown  at  w  in 
Figs.  87,  88,  and  89. 

In  Fig.  91,  a  view  of  Fig.  90 
is  given,  showing  clearly  the 
inclination  of  the  tangents  c" 
and  d"  over  and  above  the  plan 
tangents  c  and  d.  The  central 
line  of  the  wreath  is  shown 
extending  along  the  sectional 
plane,  over  and  above  its  plan 
lines,  from  one  joint  to  the 
other,  and,  at  the  joints,  made 
square  to  the  inclined  tangents 
c"  and  d" .  It  is  evident  from 
the  view  here  given,  that  the 
condition  necessary  to  square  the  joint  at  each  end  would  be  to  find 
the  true  angle  between  the  tangents  c"  and  d" ,  which  would  give  the 
correct  direction  to  each  tangent. 

In  Fig.  92  is  shown  how  to  find  this  angle  correctly  as  required 
on  the  face-mould  to  square  the  joints.  In  this  figure  is  shown  the 
same  plan  as  in  Figs.  90  and  9L  and  the  same  inclination  to  the 
tangents  as  in  Fig.  90,  so  that,  except  for  the  portion  marked  "Section," 
it  would  be  similar  to  Fig.  90. 

To  find  the  correct  angle  for  the  tangents  of  the  face-mould, 
draw  the  line  m  from  d,  square  to  the  inclined  line  of  the  tangents 
c'  d";  revolve  the  bottom  inclined  tangent  c'  to  cut  line  m  in  n,  where 
the  joint  is  shown  fixed ;  and  from  this  point  draw  the  line  c"  to  vj.  The 
intersection  of  this  line  with  the  upper  tangent  d"  forms  the  correct 
angle  as  required  on  the  face-mould.  By  drawing  the  joints  square 
to  these  two  lines,  they  will  butt  square  with  the  rail  that  is  to  connect 


Fig.  89.    Finding  Angle  between  Tangents. 


199 


48 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Joint 


Fig.  90.    Two  Tangents  Equally 
Inclined. 


FiR.  91.      Plan    T^lne.s   Projeeteci 

into    Oblique  Plane   Inclined    to 

Two  Sides. 


with  them,  or  to  the  joint  of  another  wreath  that  may  belong  to  the 

cyhnder  or  well-hole. 

Fig.  93  is  another  view  of 
tlie.se  tangents  in  position 
placed  over  and  above  the 
plan  tangents  of  the  well- 
hole.  It  will  be  observed 
that  this  figure  is  made  up 
of  Figs.  88  and  91  com-, 
billed.  Fig.  88,  as  here 
]iresented,  is  shown  to  con- 
nect with  a  level -lajiding 
rail  at  a.  The  joint  having 
been  made  square  to  -the 
level  tangent,  a  will  butt 
.square  to  a  square  end  of 
the  level  rail.  The  joint  at 
//  is  shown  to  connect  the 
two   wreaths  and  is  made 

Fig.  92.    Finding  Angle  between  Tangents.  Square  tO  the    mciiued    tan- 


200 


STAIR-BUILDING 


40 


gent?/i  of  the  lower  wreath,  and  also  square  to  the  inclined  tangent  d' 
of  the  upper  wreath ;  the  two  tangents,  aligning,  guarantee  a  square 
butt-joint.  The  upper  joint  is  made  square  to  the  tangent  d" ,  which 
is  here  shown  to  align  with  the  rail  of  the  connecting  flight;  the  joint 
will  consequently  butt  square  to  the  end  of  the  rail  of  the  flight  above. 
The  view  given  in  this  diagram  is  that  of  a  wreath  starting  from 
a  level  landing,  and  winding  around  a  well-hole,  connecting  the 
landing  with  a  flight  of  stairs  leading  to  a  second  story.  It  is  presented 
to  elucidate  the  use  made  of  tangents  to  square  the  joints  in  wreath 

construction.  The  wreath  is  shown  to 
be  in  two  sections,  one  extending  from 
the  level-landing  rail  at  a  to  a  joint  in 
the  center  of  the  well-hole  at  h,  this 
section  having  one  level  tangent  a  and 
one  inclined  tangent  m;  the  other  sec- 
tion is  shown  to  extend  from  h  to  n, 
where  it  is  butt-jointed  to  the  rail  of  the 
flight  above. 

This  figure  clearly  shows  that  the 
joint  at  a  of  the  bottom  WTeath— owing 
to  the  tangent  a  being  level  and  there- 
fore aligning  with  the  level  rail  of  the 
landing— will  be  a  true  butt-joint;  and 
that  the  joint  at  li,  which  connects  the 
two  wreaths,  will  also  be  a  true  butt- 
joint,  owing  to  it  being  made  square  to 

the  tangent  m  of 
the  bottom 
wreath  and  to  the 
tangent  c"  of  the 
upper  wreath, 
both  tangents 
having  the  same 
inclination;  also 
the  joint  at  viwill 
butt  .square  to 
the  rail  of  the 
flight     above, 


,# 


Pig.  93.    Laying  Out  Line  of  Wreath  to  Start  from  Level-Land- 

mg  Rail,  Wind  around  ^yell-Hole,  and  Connect  at  Landing  w?th 

Flight  to  Upper  Story. 


201 


50 


STAIR-BUILDING 


owing  to  it  being  made  square  to  the  tangent  d",  which  is  shown  to 
have  the  same  incHnation  as  the  rail  of  the  flight  adjoining. 

As  previously  stated,  the  use  made  of  tangents  is  to  square  the 
joints  of  the  wreaths;  and  in  this  diagram  it  is  clearly  show^n  that  the 
way  they  can  be  made  of  use  is  by  giving  each  tangent  its  true  direc- 
tion.   How  to  find  the  true  direction,  or  the  angle  between  the  tangents 


Fig.  91.    Tangents  Unfolded  to  Find  Their  Inclination. 

a  and  m  shown  in  this  diagram,  was  demonstrated  in  Fig.  89;  and  how 
to  find  the  direction  of  the  tangents  c"  and  d"  was  shown  in  Fig.  92. 

Fig.  94  is  presented  to  help  further  toward  an  understanding 
of  the  tangents.  In  this  diagram  they  are  unfolded;  that  is,  they 
are  stretched  out  for  the  purpose  of  finding  the  inclination  of  each 
one  over  and  above  the  plan  tangents.  The  side  plan  tangent  a 
is  shown  stretched  out  to  the  fl(X)r  line,  and  its  elevation  a'  is  a  level 
line.  'J^hc  side  plan  tangent  d  is  also  stretched  out  to  the  floor  line, 
as  shown  by  the  arc  n'  in'.  By  this  process  the  plan  tangents  are  now 
in  one  straight  line  on  the  floor  line,  as  shown  from  w  to  m'.  Upon 
each  one,  erect  a  perpendicular  line  as  shown,  and  from  m'  measure 
to  n,  the  height  the  wreath  is  to  ascend  around  the  well-hole.     In 


202 


STAIR  HALL  OF  HOUSE  IN  URBANA,  ILL. 


1      -  ' 

3 

i^. 

1 

1  y 

i 

HB                     Si 

i' "  ^T^^^B™ 

i 

LIVING  ROOM  OF  HOUSE  IN  URBANA,  ILL. 

"White  &  Temple,  Architects,  University  of  Illinois 
For  Exterior  and  Plans,  See  Page  266. 


STAIR-BITILDING 


51 


practice,  the  number  of  risers  in  the  well-hole  will  determine  this 
height. 

Now,  from  point  11,  draw  a  few  treads  and  risers  as  shown;  and 
along  the  nosing  of  the  steps,  draw  the  pitch-line;  continue  this  line 
over  the  tangents  d",  c",  and  m,  down  to  where  it  connects  with  the 
hot  om  level  tangent,  as  shown.  This  gives  the  pitch  or  inclination 
to  the  tangents 
over  and  above 
the  well-hole. 
The  same  line  is 
shown  in  Fig.  93, 
folded  around 
the  w  e  1 1-h  o  1  e, 
from  ?i,  where  it 
connects  with  the 
flight  at  the  up- 
per end  of  the 
well-hole,  to  o, 
where  it  connects 
with  the  level- 
landing  rail  at 
the  bottom  of 
the  well-hole.  It 
will  be  observed 
that  the  upper 
portion,  from 

■joint  n  to  joint  h,       rig.  95.    WeU-Hole  Conneoting  Two  Flights,  with  Two  Wreath- 
Pieces,  fiacli  Coutiduing  Portions  of  Unequal  Pilch. 

over  the  tangents 

c"  and  d",  coincides  with  the  pitch-line  of  the  same  tangents  as 
presented  in  Fig.  92,  where  they  are  used  to  find  the  true  angle  between 
the  tangents  as  it  is  required  on  the  face-mould  to  square  the  ioints 
of  the  wTcath  at  h. 

In  Fig.  89  the  same  pitch  is  shown  given  to  tangent  m  as  in  Fig. 
94;  and  in  both  figures  the  pitch  is  shown  to  be  the  same  as  that  over 
and  above  the  upper  connecting  tangents  c"  and  r/",  which  is  a  neces- 
sary condition  where  a  joint,  as  shown  at  h  in  Figs.  93  and  94,  is  to 
connect  two  pieces  of  wreath  as  in  this  example. 

In  Fig.  94  are  shown  the  two  face-moulds  for  the  wreaths,  placed 


203 


52 


STAIR-BUILDIXG 


upon  tlie  pitch-line  of  the  tangents  over  the  well-hole.  The  angles 
between  the  tangents  of  the  face-moulds  have  been  found  in  this 
figure  by  the  same  method  as  in  Figs.  89  and  92,  which,  if  compared 
with  the  present  figure,  will  be  found  to  correspond,  excepting  only 
the  curves  of  the  face-moulds  in  Fig.  94. 

The  foregoing  explanation  of  the  tangents  will  give  the  student 
a  fairly  good  idea  of  the  use  made  of  tangents  in  wreath  construction. 
Tiie  treatment,  however,  would  not  be  complete  if  left  off  at  this 
point,  as  it  shows  how  to  handle  tangents  under  only  two  conditions — 
namely,  first,  when  one  tangent  inclines  and  the  other  is  level,  as  at 
a  and  m;  second,  when  both  tangents  incline,  as  shown  at  c"  and  cV. 

In  Fig.  95  is  shown  a  well-hole  connecting  two  flights,  where  two 


Tangent  Tangent 


i 


Fig.  '.1(3.      Finding  Anglo    be- 
tween Tangents    for    Uottom 
Wreath  of  Fig.  95. 


Joint 


Joint 

1^ 


6     4   Tangent 


Fig.  97.      Fimiing  Angle  be- 
tween  Tangents    for   Upijer 
Wreath  of  Fig.  95. 


portions  of  unequal  pitch  occur  in  both  pieces  of  wreath.  The  first 
piece  over  the  tangents  a  and  h  is  shown  to  extend  from  the  square 
end  of  the  straight  rail  of  the  bottom  flight,  to  the  joint  in  the  center 
of  the  well-hole,  the  bottom  tangent  a"  in  this  wreath  inclining  more 
than  the  upper  tangent  h".  The  other  piece  of  wreath  is  shown  to 
connect  with  the  bottom  one  at  the  joint  h"  in  the  center  of  the  well- 
hole,  and  to  extend  over  tangents  c"  and  d"  to  connect  with  the  rail  of 
the  upper  flight.  The  relative  inclination  of  the  two  tangents  in  this 
wreath,  is  the  reverse  of  that  of  the  two  tangents  of  the  lower  wreath. 
In  the  lower  piece,  the  bottom  tangent  a",  a.s  previously  stated, 
inclines  con.siderably  more  than  does  the  upjX'r  tangent  h";  while 
in  the  upper  piece,  the  bottom  tangent  c"  inclines  considerably  less 
than  the  upper  tangent  d". 

The  question  may  arise:  What  cafises  this?  Is  it  for  variation 
in  the  inclination  of  the  tangents  over  the  well-hole?  It  is  simply 
owing  to  the  tangents  being  u.sed  in  handrailing  to  s(juare  the  joints. 

The  inclination  of  the  bottom  tangent  u"  of  the  bottom  wreath 


204 


STAIR-BUILDING 


53 


JOlMt 


is  clearly  shown  in  the  diagram  to  be  determined  by  the  inclination 
of  the  bottom  flight.  The  joint  at  a"  is  made  square  to  both  the  straight 
rail  of  the  flight  and  to  the  bottom  tangent  of  the  wreath ;  the  rail  and 
tangent,  therefore,  must  be  equally  inclined,  otherwise  the  joint  will 
not  be  a  true  butt-joint.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  joint  at  5, 
where  the  upper  wreath  is  shown  jointed  to  the  straight  rail  of  the 
upper  flight.  In  this  case,  tangent  d"  must  be  fixed  to  incline  conform- 
ably to  the  in- 
clination of  the 
upper  rail ;  other- 
wise the  joint  at 
5  will  not  be  a 
true  butt-joint. 

The  same 
principle  is  ap- 
plied in  deter- 
mining the  pitch 
or  inclination 
over  the  crown 
tangents  h"  and 
c".  Owing  to  the 
necessity  of  joint- 
in  g  the  two 
wreaths,  as 
shown  at  h,  these 
two  tangents 
must    have    the 

same  inclination,  and   therefore  must  be  fixed,  as  shown  from  2 
to  4,  over  the  crown  of  the  well-hole. 

The  tangents  as  here  presented  are  those  of  the  elevation,  not 
of  the  face-mould.  Tangent  a"  is  the  elevation  of  the  side  plan  tan- 
gent a;  tangents  h"  and  c"  are  shown  to  be  the  elevations  of  the  plan 
tangents  h  and  c;  so,  also,  is  the  tangent  d"  the  elevation  of  the  side 
plan  tangent  (/. 

If  this  diagram  were  folded,  as  Fig.  94  was  shown  to  be  in  Fig. 
93,  the  tangents  of  the  elevation— namely,  a",  h",  c",  r/"— would  stand 
over  and  above  the  plan  tangents  a,  h,  c,  d  of  the  well-hole.  In  prac- 
tical work,  this  diagram  must  be  drawn  full  size.  It  gives  the  correct 


Fig.  98. 


Diagram  of  Tangents  and  Face-Mould  for  Sta'r  with 
Well-Hole  at  Upper  Landing. 


205 


54 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Joint 


Fig.  99.  Draw- 
init;  Mould  when 
One  Tan{;ent  i.s 
Level  and  One 
Inclined  o  v  o  r 
Kigh  t- Angled 
Plan. 


length  to  each  tangent  as  reciuired  on  the  face-mould,  and  furnishes 
also  the  data  for  the  lay-out  of  the  mould. 

Fig.  96  shows  how  to  find  the  angle  between  the  tangents  of  the 
face-mould  for  the  bottom  wreath,  which,  as  shown  in  Fig.  95,  is  to 
span  over  the  first  plan  quadrant  a  h.  The  elevation 
Joint  tangents  a"  and  h",  as  shown,  will  be  the  tangents  of  the 
mould.  To  find  the  angle  between  the  tangents,  draw 
the  line  ah  in  Fig.  96;  and  from  a,  measure  to  2  the 
length  of  the  bottom  tangent  a"  in  Fig.  95;  the 
length  from  2  to  h,  Fig.  96,  will  equal  the  length  of 
the  \ipper  tangent  h",  Fig.  95. 

From  2  to  1,  measure  a  distance  equal  to  2-1  in  Fig. 
95,  the  latter  being  found  by  dropping  a  perpendicular 
from  10  to  meet  the  tangent  h"  extended.  Upon  1 ,  erect 
a  perpendicular  line;  and  placing  the  dividers  on  2, 
extend  to  a;  turn  over  to  the  perpendicular  at  a";  con- 
nect this  point  with  2,  and  the  line  will  be  the  bottom  tangent  as 
required  on  the  face-mould.  The  upper  tangent  will  be  the  line  2-h, 
antl  the  angle  between  the  two  lines  is  shown  at  2.  iNIake  the  joint 
at  h  square  to  2-h,  and  at  a"  sfjuare  to  a"-2. 

The  mould  as  it  appears  in  Fig.  96  is  complete,  except  the  curve, 
which  is  comparatively  a 
small  matter  to  put  on,  as 
will  be  shown  further  on. 
The  main  thing  is  to  find 
the  angle  between  the  tan- 
gents, which  is  shown  at  2, 
to  give  them  the  direction  to 
square  the  joints. 

In  Fig.  97  is  shown  how 
to  find  the  angle  between 
the  tangents  c"  and  d" 
shown  in  Fig.  95,  as  required 
on  the  face-mould.    On  the 

line  /i-5,  make  h-A  ecjual  to  the  length  of  the  bottom  tangent  of  the 
wreath,  as  shown  at  /i"-4  in  Fig.  95;  anil  4-5  equal  to  the  length  of 
the  upper  tangent  d".  Measure  from  4  the  distance  shown  at  4-6 
in  Fig  95,  and  place  it  from  4  to  6  as  shown  in  Fig.  97;  upon  6  erect  a 


CJ  5 o 


Newel 


Fig.  100. 


Plan  of  Curved  Steps  and  Stringer  at 
Bottom  of  Stair. 


206 


STAIR-BUILDING 


55 


.Joint 


Level  Tangent 


Floor  Line'' 


b  Tangent 


PiicVi- 
board 


perpendicular  line.  Now  place  the  dividers  on  4;  extend  to  k;  turn 
over  to  cut  the  perpendicular  in  h";  connect  this  point  with  4,  and  the 
angle  shown  at  4  will  be  the  angle  required  to  square  the  joints  of  the 
wreath  as  showni  at  h"  and  5,  where  the  joint  at  5  is  shown  drawn 
square  to  the  line  4—5,  and  the  joint  at  h"  square  to  the  line  4  h". 

Fig.  98  is  a  diagram  of  tangents  and  face-mould  for  a  stairway 
having  a  well-hole 
at  the  top  landing. 
The  tangents  in  this 
example  will  be  two 
equallyinclined  tan- 
gents for  the  bot- 
tom wreath ;  and  for 
the  top  wreath,  one 
inclined  andonelev- 
el,  the  latter  align- 
ing with  the  level 
rail  of  the  landing:. 
The  face-moidd, 
as  here  presented, 
will  further  help 
toward  an  under- 
standing of  the  lay- 
out of  face-moulds 
as  shown  in  Figs.  96 

and  97.  It  will  be  obsers'ed  that  the  pitch  of  the  bottom  rail  is  con- 
tinued from  a"  to  h",  a  condition  caused  by  the  necessity  of  jointing  the 
wreath  to  the  end  of  the  straight  rail  at  a",  the  joint  being  made  square 
to  both  the  straight  rail  and  the  bottom  tangent  a".  From  h"  a  line  is 
drawn  to  d",  which  is  a  fixed  point  determined  by  the  number  of  risers 
in  the  well-hole.  From  point  d",  the  level  tangent  d"  5  is  drawn  in  line 
with  the  level  rail  of  the  landing;  thus  the  pitch-line  of  the  tangents 
over  the  well-hole  is  found,  and,  as  was  shown  in  the  explanation  of 
Fig.  95,  the  tangents  as  here  presented  will  be  those  required  on  the 
face-mould  to  square  the  joints  of  the  wreath. 

In  Fig.  98  the  tangents  of  the  face-mould  for  the  bottom  wreath 
are  shown  to  be  a"  and  h".  To  place  tangent  a"  in  position  on  the 
face-mould,  it  is  revolved,  as  shown  by  the  arc,  to  m,  cutting  a  line 


Fig.   101. 


NJewel 


Finding  Angle  between  Tangents  foi*  Squaring 
Joints  of  Ramped  Wreath. 


207 


56 


STAIR-BUI  rJ)IXG 


Newel 


Fig.  103.    Bottom  Steps  \vith  Obtuse 
Angle  Plau. 


previously  drawn  from  ?/'  square  to  tlie  tangent  h"  extended.  Then, 
by  connecting  m  to  h",  the  bottom  tangent  is  placed  in  position  on  the 
face-mould.  The  joint  at  m  is  to  be  made  square  to  it;  and  the  joint 
at  c,  the  other  end  of  the  mould,  is  to  be  made  square  to  the  tangent  b". 

The  upper  piece  of  wreath  in  this 
example  is  shown  to  have  tangent  c" 
inclining,  the  inclination  being  the  same 
as  that  of  the  upper  tangent  b"  of  the 
bottom  wreath,  so  that  the  joint  at  c", 
when  made  square  to  both  tangents, 
will  butt  square  when  put  together. 
The  tangent  d"  is  shown  to  be  level,  so 
that  the  joint  at  5,  when  squared  with 
it,  will  butt  square  with  the  square  end 
of  the  level-landing  rail.  The  level  tangent  is  shown  revolved  to  its 
position  on  the  face-mould,  as  from  5  to  2.  In  this  last  position,  it 
will  be  observed  that  its  angle  with  the  inclined  tangent  c"  is  a  right 
angle;  and  it  should  be  remembered  that  in  every  similar  case  where 
one  tangent  inclines  and  one  is  level 
over  a  square-angle  plan  tangent,  the 
angle  between  the  two  tangents  will 
be  a  right  angle  on  the  face-mould. 
A  knowledge  of  this  principle  will  en- 
able the  student  to  draw  the  mould 
for  this  wreath,  as  shown  in  Fig.  90, 
by  merely  drawing  two  lines  perpen- 
dicular to  each  other,  as  d"  5  and  d"  c" , 
equal  respectively  to  the  level  tangent 
d"  5  and  the  inclined  tangent  c"  in  Fig. 
98.  The  joint  at  5  is  to  be  made 
square  to  d"  5;  and  that  at  c" ,  to  d"  c". 
Comparing  this  figure  with  the  face- 
mould  as  shown  for  the  upper  wreath  in  Fig.  OS,  it  will  be  observed 
that  both  are  alike. 

In  practical  work  the  stair-builder  is  often  called  upon  to  deal 
with  cases  in  which  the  conditions  of  tangents  differ  from  all  the 
examples  thus  far  given.  An  instance  of  this  sort  is  shown  in  Fig.  100, 
in  which  the  angles  between  the  tangents  on  the  plan  are  acute. 


■"X^ 

^y^' 

/ 

Pitch- 

Face  Mo<. 

board 

^^^.^ 

'7y 

—  Riser 

"1^^ 

—  Riser 

'-  ,'\w 

b 

rioor  Line 

'¥ 

Plan 

NewelN 

Fig.  103.    Developing  Face -Mould, 
Obtuse-Angie  Plan. 


208 


STAIR-BUILDIXG 


57 


Fig.  105.    Wreath  Twisted,  Ready  to  be  Moulded. 


In  all  the  preceding  examples,  the  tan- 
gents on  the  plan  were  at  right  angle.s; 
that  is,  they  were  square  to  one  another. 
Fig.  100  is  a  plan  of  a  few  curved 
steps  placed  at  the  bottom  of  a  stairway 
with  a  curv'ed  stringer,which  is  struck  from 
a  center  o.  The  plan  tangents  a  and  b 
Fig.  m.  ciitMnc^ Wreath  from  ^^j.^  gj^Qwu  to  form  an  acute  angl-e  with  each 

other.  The  rail  above  a  plan  of  this 
design  is  usually  ramped  at  the  bottom  end,  where  it  intersects  the 
newel  post,  and,  when  so  treated,  the  bottom  tangent  a  will  have 
to  be  level. 

In  Fig.  101  is  shown 
how  to  find  the  angle  be- 
tween the  tangents  on  the 
face-mould  that  gives  them 
the  correct  direction  for 
squaring  the   joints   of   the 

^^Teath  when  it  is  determined  to  have  it  ramped.  This  figure  must 
be  drawn  full  size.  Usually  an  ordinary  drawing-board  will  answer 
the  purpose.  Upon  the  board,  reproduce  the  plan  of  the  tangents  and 
curve  of  the  center  line  of  rail  as  shown  in  Fig.  100.  Pleasure  the  height 

of  5  risers,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  101,  from  tlie  floor  line 
to  5 ;  and  draw  the  pitch  of 
the  flight  adjoining  the 
wreath,  from  5  to  the  floor 
line.  From  the  newel, 
draw  the  dotted  line  to  iv, 
square  to  the  floor  line; 
from  IV,  draw  the  \meivm, 
square  to  the  pitch-line  h'\ 
Now  take  the  length  of  the 
bottom  level  tangent  on  a 
trammel,  or  on  dividers  if 
large  enough,  and  extend 
it  from  n  to?H,  cutting  the 

Fig.   106.    T^^^isted  Wreath  Raised  to  Position,  with    i  •       J j-awn  Dreviouslv  from 
Sides  Plumb.  ^  tr  >^ 


209 


58 


STAIR-BUILDING 


w,  at  m.  Connect  m  to  n  as  shown  by  the  hne  a".  The  intersection 
of  this  hne  with //'determines  the  angle  between  the  two  tangents  a" 
and  6"  of  the  face-mould,  Avhich  gives  them  the  correct  direction  as 
required  on  the  face-mould  for  squaring  the  joints.  The  joint  at  iii'is 
made  square  to  tangent  a";  and  the  joint  at  5,  to  tangent  h". 

In  Fig.  102  is  presented  an  example  of  a  few  steps  at  the  bottom 
of  a  stairway  in  which  the  tangents  of  the  plan  form  an  obtuse  angle 
with  each  other.  The  curve  of  the 
central  line  of  the  rail  in  this  case 
will  be  less  than  a  quadrant,  and, 
as  shown,  is  struck  from  the  center 
o,  the  curve  covering  the  three  first 
steps  from  the  newel  to  the  springing. 

In  Fig.  103  is  shown  .how  to 
develop  the  tangents  of  the  face- 
mould.    Reproduce  the  tangents  and 


FiK.  107.    VincUiii:  Hovel,  not- 
torn   TaiiK<'iit  Indinetl,  Top 
One  Level. 


Fig.  108.    Application  of  Bevels  In  Fitting  Wreath  to 

Kail. 


curve  of  the  plan  in  full  size.  Fix  point  3  at  a  height  equal  to  3 
risers  from  the  floor  line;  at  this  point  place  the  pitch-board  of  the 
flight  to  determine  the  pitch  over  the  curve  as  shown  from  3  through 
b"  to  the  floor  line.  From  the  newel,  draw  a  line  to  w,  square  to 
the  floor  line;  and  from  v\  square  to  the  pitch-line  h'\  draw  the  line 
w  m;  connect  m  to  //.  This  last  line  is  the  development  of  the  bottom 
plan  tangent  a;  and  the  line  h"  is  the  development  of  the  plan  tangent 


210 


STAIR-BUILDING 


50 


Fig.  109.     Face-Mould  imd  Bevel  for  Wreath,  Bottom  Tangent  Level, 

Top  One  Inclined. 


b;  and  the  angle  between  the  two  hnes  a"  and  h"  will  give  each  line 

its  true  direction  as  required  on  the  face-mould  for  squaring  the  joints 

of  the  wreath, 
a  d  /  as    shown    at 

m  to  connect 
square  with 
the  newel,  and 
at  3  to  con- 
nect square  to 
the  rail  of  the 
conn  cctin  g 
flight. 

The  wreath 
i  n  this  e  x- 
ample  follows 
the  nosingline 
of    the    steps 

without  being  ramped  as  it  was  in  the  examples  shown  in  Figs.  100 

and  101.     In  those  figures  the  bottom  tangent  a  was  level,  while  in 

Eig.  103  it  inclines  equal  to  the  pitch  of  the  upper  tangent  6"  and  of  the 

flight  adjoining.    In 

other  words,  the 

method    shown    in 

Fig.  101  is  applied 

to  a  construction  in 

which  the  wreath  is 

ramped ;    while    in 

Fig.  103  the  method 

is    applicable  to   a  ground 

wreath  following         Line 

the  nosing  line  all 

along  the  curve  to 

the  newel. 

The  stair-build- 
er   is    supposed   to 

know  how  to   con- 
struct a  wreath  under  both  conditions,  as  the  conditions  are  usually 

determined  by  the  Architect. 


a.  o 

Fig.  110.    Finding  Bevels  for  Wreath  with  Two  Equally 
Inclined  Tangents. 


211 


60 


STAIII-BUILDIXG 


The  foregoing  cxcamples  cover  all  conditions  of  tangents  that 
are  likely  to  turn  up  in  practice,  and,  if  clearly  understood,  will  enable 
the  student  to  lay  out  the 
face-moulds  for  all  kinds 
of  curves. 

Bevels  to  Square  the 
Wreaths.  The  next 
process  in  the  construc- 
tion of  a  wreath  that  the 
handrailer  will  be  called 
upon  to  perform, is  to  find 
the  bevels  that  will,  by 
being  applied  to  each  end 
of  it,  give  the  correct  angle 
to  square  or  twist  it  when 
winding  around  the  well- 
hole  from  one  flight  to 
another  flight,  or  from 
a  flight  to  a  landing,  as 
the  case  may  be. 

The  wreath  is  first 

cut  from  the  plank  square   to   its   surface   as   shown    in  Fig.    104. 

After    the    application    of    the    bevels,    it    is     twisted,    as  shown 

in  Fig.  105,  ready 
to  be  moulded; 
a  n  d  w  hen  in 
position,  ascending 
from  one  end  of  the 
curve  to  the  other 
T-  end,  over  the  in- 
clined plane  of  the 
section  around  the 
well-hole,  its  sides 
will  be  plumb,  as 


Fig.  111.    Api)Iicatlon  of  Bevels  to  Wreath  Ascending 
on  Phiiio  luclint'il  J'^iuiiUy  in  Two  Directions. 


Fig.  112.    Finding  Bevel  Where  Upper  Tanu'ciit  Inrliiics 
More  Thau  Lowtr  One. 


shown  in  Fig.  106 
at   h.     In  this   fig- 


ure, as  also  in  Fig.  105,  the  wreath  a  lies  in  a   horizontal  position 
in  which  its  sides  appear  to  be  out  of  plumb  as  much  as  the  bevels 


ieiie 


STAIR-BUILDING 


61 


are  out  of  pluml).     In  the   upper  part    of  the  figure,  the  wreath 

b  is  shown  placed  in  its    position    upon   the  phms  of  the  section, 

where     its    sides    arc    seen    to    be     pkunb.       It    is    evident,    as 

shown  in  the 

relative    posi- 

tionof  the 

wreath  in  this 

figure,  that,  if 

the  bevel  is  the 

correct    angle 

of  the  plane  of 

the  section 

whereon     the 

wreath  h  rests 

in    its    ascent 

over  the  well-  a  o 

hole  the        Fig.   113.     Finding  Bevel  Where  Upi)er  Tangent  Inclines  Less 

'  Than  Lower  One. 

wreath  will  in 

that  case  have  its  sides  plumb  all  along  when  in  position.  It  is  for  this 

purpose  that  the  bevels  are  needed. 

A  method  of  finding  the  bevels  for  all  wreaths  (nhich  is  considered 
rather  difficult)  will  now  be  explained : 

First  Case.  In  Fi^.  107  is  shown  a  case  where  the  bottom 
tangent  of  a  ^Teath  is  inclining,  and  the  top  one  level,  similar  to  the 
top  wreath  shown  in  Fig.  98.  It  has  already  been  noted  that  the  plane 
of  the  section  for  this  kind  of  WTcath  inclines  to  one  side  only;  therefore 
one  bevel  only  will  be  required  to  square  it,  which  is  shown  at  d, 
Fig.  107.  A  view  of  this  plane  is  given  in  Fig.  108;  and  the  bevel  d, 
as  there  shown,  indicates  the  angle  of  the  inclination,  which  also  is 
the  bevel  required  to  square  the  end  d  of  the  wreath.  The  bevel  is 
shown  applied  to  the  end  of  the  landing  rail  in  exactly  the  same  manner 
in  which  it  is  to  be  applied  to  the  end  of  the  wreath.  The  true  bevel 
for  this  wreath  is  found  at  the  upper  angle  of  the  pitch-board.  At  the 
end  a,  as  already  stated,  no  bevel  is  required,  owing  to  the  plane 
inclinino:  in  one  direction  onlv.  Fig.  109  shows  a  face-mould  and 
bevel  for  a  wreath  with  the  bottom  tangent  level  and  the  top  tangent 
inclining,  such  as  the  piece  at  the  bottom  connecting  with  the  landing 
rail  in  Fig.  94. 


213 


02 


STAIR-BUILDIXG 


Sccoml  Case.  It  may  be  rc(|uirc(l  to  find  the  bevels  for  a  wreath 
having  two  equally  inclined  tangents.  An  example  of  this  kind  also 
is  shown  in  Fig.  04,  where  both  the  tangents  c"  and  d"  of  the  upper 


Fig.  114.  FindiusUevel 
Whore  Tiiiitreuts  In- 
cline Kqually  over 
Obtuse-Angle  Plan. 


Fig.  115.    Pa  mo  Plan  as  in  Fig. 

Ill,   but  with   Bottom  Tangent 

Level. 


wreath  incline  equally.  Two  bevels  are  required  in  this  case,  because 
the  plane  of  the  section  is  inclined  in  two  directions;  but,  owing  to  the 
inclinations  being  alike,  it  follows  that  the  two  will  be  the  same. 
Thev  are  to  be  applied  to  both  ends  of  the  wreath,  and,  as  shown  in. 

Fiff.  105,  in  the  same  direction — namelv, 
toward  the  inside  of  the  wreath  for  the  bot- 
tom  end,  and  toward  the  outside  for  the  upper 
end. 

In  Fig.  110  the  method  of  finding  the  bevels 
is  shown.    A  line  is  drawn  from  w  to  c",  square 
to  the  pitch  of  the  tangents,  and  turned  over 
to  the  ground  line  at  h,  which  point  is  con- 
nected to  a  as  shown.     The  bevel  is  at  h. 
To   show   that   equal   tangents    have    equal 
bevels,  the  line  m  is  drawn,  having  the  same 
inclination  as  the  bottom  tangent  c",  but  in  another  direction.    Place 
the  dividers  on  o',  and  turn  to  touch  the  lines  d"  and  m,  as  shown  by 
the  semicircle.    The  line  from  o'  to  n  is  equal  to  the  side  plan  tangent 


Fig.  116.    Finding   IJevels 
for  Wreath  of  Fig.  115. 


214 


STAIR-BUILDING 


03 


w  a,  and  both  the  bevels  here  shown  are  equal  to  the  one  already 
found.  They  represent  the  angle  of  inclination  of  the  plane  where- 
on the  wreath  ascends,  a  view  of  which  is  given  in  Fig.  Ill,  where 
the  plane  is  shown  to  incline  equally  in  two  directions.  At  both  ends 
is  shown  a  section  of  a  rail ;  and  the  bevels  are  applied  to  show  how. 
by  means  of  them,  the  wreath  is  squared  or  twisted  when  winding 
around  the  well-hole  and  ascending  upon  the  plane  of  the  section. 
The  view  given  in 
this  figure  will  en- 
able the  student  to 
understand  the 
nature  of  the  bevels 
found  in  Fig.  110 
for  a  wreath  having 
two  equally  inclined 
tangents;  also  for 
all  other  wreaths  of 
equally  inclined 
tangents,  in  that 
every  w  r  e  a  t  h  in 
such  case  is  assumed 
to  rest  upon  an  in- 
clined plane  in  its 
ascent  over  the  well- 
hole,  the  bevel  in 
every  case  being  the  angle  of  the  inclined  plane. 

Third  Case.  In  this  example,  two  unecjual  tangents  are  given, 
the  upper  tangent  inclining  more  than  the  bottom  one.  The  method 
shown  in  Fig.  110  to  find  the  bevels  for  a  wreath  with  two  equal  tan- 
gents, is  applicable  to  all  conditions  of  variation  in  the  inclination  of 
the  tangents.  In  Fig.  112  is  shown  a  case  where  the  upper  tangent 
d"  inclines  more  than  the  bottom  one  c".  The  method  in  all  cases  is 
to  continue  the  line  of  the  upper  tangent  d" ,  Fig.  112,  to  the  ground 
line  as  shown  at  n;  from  n,  draw  a  line  to  a,  which  will  be  the  horizon- 
tal trace  of  the  plane.  Now,  from  o,  draw  a  line  parallel  to  a  n,  as 
shown  from  c  to  d,  upon  d,  erect  a  perpendicular  line  to  cut  the  tangent 
d",  -as  shown,  at  m;  and  draw  the  line  m  u  o" .  INIake  u  o"  equal  to 
the  length  of  the  plan  tangent  as  shown  by  the  arc  from  o.  Put  one 


Pis',  in 


Upper  Tangent  Inclined.  Lower  Tangent  Level, 
Over  Acute- Angle  Plan. 


215 


64 


STATR-BUILDING 


m 


Finding  Bevels  for  Wreatii 
of  Plan,  Fig.  117. 


leg  of  the  dividers  on  u;  extend  to  touch  the  upper  +angent  d",  and 
turn  over  to  1 ;  connect  1  to  o";  the  bevel  at  1  is  to  be  applied  to  tangent 
d".  Again  place  the  dividers  on  u;  extend  to  the  line  h,  and  turn  over  to 
2  as  shown;  connect  2  to  o",  and  the  bevel  shown  at  2  will  be  the  one 

to  apply  to  the  bottom  tangent  c". 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  line  Ji 
represents  the  bottom  tangent.  It 
is  the  same  length  and  has  the  same 
inclination.  An  example  of  this 
kind  of  wreath  was  shown  in  Fig. 
05,  where  the  upper  tangent  d"  is 
shown  to  incline  more  than  the  bot- 
tom tangent  c"  in  the  top  piece  ex- 
tending from  h"  to  5.  Bevel  1 ,  found 
in  Fig.  112,  is  the  real  bevel  for  the 
end  5;  and  bevel  2,  for  the  end  //"  of  the  wreath  shown  from  h"  to  5 
in  Fig.  95. 

Fourth  Case.  In  Fig.  113  is  shown  how  to  find  the  bevels  for  a 
wreath  when  the  upper  tangent  inclines  less  than  the  bottom  tangent. 
This  example  is  the  reverse  of  the  preceding  one;  it  is  the  condition 
of  tangents  found  in  the  bottom  piece  of  w^reath  shown  in  Fig.  95. 
To  find  the  bevel,  continue  the  upper  tangent  h"  to  the  ground  line, 
as  shown  at  n;  connect  ?«.  to  a,  which  will  be  the  horizontal  trace  of 
the  plane.  From  o,  draw  a  line  parallel  to  n  a,  as  shown  from  o  to  d; 
upon  d,  erect  a  perpendicular  line  to  cut  the  continued  portion  of  the 
upper  tangent  h"  in  m;  from  m,  draw  the  line  m  u  o"  across  as  shoMu. 
Now  place  the  dividers  on  w;  extend  to  touch  the  upper  tangent,  and 
turn  over  to  1 ;  connect  1  to  o" ;  the  bevel  at  1  will  be  the  one  to  ap})ly 
to  the  tangent  h"  at  //-,  where  the  two  wreaths  are  shown  connecteil  in 
Fig.  95.  Again  place  the  dividers  on  u;  extend  to  touch  the  line  c; 
turn  over  to  2;  connect  2  to  o" ;  the  bevel  at  2  is  to  be  applied  to  the 
bottom  tangent  o!'  at  the  joint  where  it  is  shown  to  connect  with  the 
rail  of  the  flight. 

F////i  Case.  In  this  case  we  have  two  equally  inclined  tangents 
over  an  obtuse-angle  plan.  In  Fig.  102  is  shown  a  plan  of  this  kinil ; 
and  in  Fig.  103,  the  development  of  the  face-mould. 

In  Fig.  1 14  is  shown  how  to  find  the  bevel.  From  a,  draw  a  line 
to  a',  square  to  the  ground  line.     Place  the  dividers  on  a';  extend  to 


KIR 


STAIR-BUILDING 


65 


touch  the  pitch  of  tangents,  and  turn  over  as  shown  to  m;  connect  m 
to  a.  The  bevel  at  m  will  be  the  only  one  required  for  this  wreath, 
but  it  will  have  to  be  applied  to  both  ends,  owing  to  the  two  tangents 
being  inclined. 

Sixth  Case.  In  this  case  we  have  one  tangent  inclining  and  one 
tangent  level,  over  an  acute-angle  plan. 

In  Fig.  115  is  shown  the  same  plan  as  in  Fig,  114;  but  in  this 


i.\     ^ 


Directing  Ordinate       "•  ^ 

Of  Section  ^-^  \         ^x     ^^ 


Directing  Ordinate 
Of  Base 


\L_^o 


Fig.  119.    Laying  Out  Cui'ves  on  Face-Mould  with  Pins  and  Sti'lng. 

case  the  bottom  tangent  a"  is  to  be  a  level  tangent.  Probably  this 
condition  is  the  most  commonly  met  with  in  wreath  construction  at 
the  present  time.  A  small  curve  is  considered  to  add  to  the  appear- 
ance of  the  stair  and  rail;  and  consequently  it  has  become  almost  a 
"fad"  to  have  a  little  curve  or  stretch-out  at  the  bottom  of  the  stairwav, 
and  in  most  cases  the  rail  is  ramped  to  intersect  the  newel  at  right 
angles  instead  of  at  the  pitch  of  the  flight.  In  such  a  case,  the  bottom 
tangent  a"  will  have  to  be  a  level  tangent,  as  shown  at  a"  in  Fig.  115, 
the  pitch  Off  the  flight  being  over  the  plan  tangent  b  only. 


217 


66 


STAIR-BUILDING 


To  find  the  bevels  when  tangent  h"  inchnes  and  tangent  a"  is 
level,  make  a  c  in  Fig.  110  equal  to  a  c  in  Fig.  115.    This  line  will  be 

the  base  of  the  two  bevels. 
Upon  a,  erect  the  line  a  w  m 
at  right  angles  to  a  c;  make  a 
IV  equal  to  ou'in  Fig.  115;  con- 
nect w  and  c;  the  bevel  at  w 
will  be  the  one  to  apply  to  tan- 
gent h"  at  n  where  the  wreath 
is  joined  to  the  rail  of  the  flight. 
Again,  make  a  m  in  Fig.  116 
equal  the  distance  shown  in  Fig. 
115  between  w  and  m,  which  is 

Fig.  120.    Shaple  Method  of  Drawing  Curves       the   full   height  OVer   which   tan- 
on  Face-Mould.  ^^^^  jy,  j^  inclined ;  connect  m  to 

c  in  Fig.  116,  and  at  m  is  the  bevel  to  be  applied  to  the  level  tangent  a". 

Seventh  Case. 
In  this  case,  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  117, 
the  upper  tangent 
b"  is  shown  to  in- 
cline, and  the  bot- 
tom tangent  a"  to 
be  level,  over  an 
acute  -  angle  plan. 
The  plan  here  is 
the  same  as  that  in 
Fig.  100,  where  a 
curve  is  shown  to 
stretch  out  from  the 


Section 


■^.( 


-BeveM 


%s 


^N  Mirror  \ 

' 

X 

x/      1 

3- 

«                     V 

r^N  Plar. 

/ 
/ 
/ 
/ 
/ 
y 
y 

o 


line  of  the  straight 
stringer  at  the  bot- 
tom of  a  flight  to  a 
newel,  and  is  large  a-  ^ 

1       ,  .    .         Fig.  121.    Tangents,  Bevels,  MoTild-Curves,  etc.,  from  Bottom 

enOUgll     to    contain      Wroalh  of  Fig.   H.'),  in   which  Upper  Tangent  Inclines  Le.ss 
„  ,  1  •    1  than  Lower  One. 

nve    treads,    which 

are  yracefullv  rounded  to  cut  the  curve  of  the  central  Hue  of  rail  in 

1,  2,  3,  4.    This  curve  also  may  be  used  to  connect  a  landing  rail  to  a 


218 


>• 
< 

a 
z 

ce  u 

O  !* 

J  >» 

bb  hi 

3 

:  o 

d  ^ 

^  s 

ce  ^ 

<  a 

© 

M  H 

H  3 

=  f 

O  -^ 


H 
CA 

Q 
Z 

< 

Q 

oe 

O 
U 


p 


STAIR-BUILDING 


67 


flight,  either  at  top  or  bottom,  when  the  plan  is  acute-angled,  as  will 
be  shown  further  on. 

To  find  the  bevels —  o]      Major* 

for  there  will  be  two 
bevels  necessary  for  this 
wreath,  owing  to  one 
tangent  b"  being  inclined 
and  the  other  tangent  a" 
being  level — make  a  c, 
Fig.  118,  equal  to  ac  in 
Fig.  117,  which  is  a  line 
drawn  square  to  the 
ground  line  from  the 
ne\yel  and  shown  in  all 
preceding  figures  to  have 
been  used  for  the  base 
of  a  triangle  containing 

the  bevel.      Make    a  lO  in    ^'S-   123.      Developed  Section  of  Plane  Inclining  Un 

equally  ni  Two  Directions. 

Fig.  118  equal  to  -mj  0  in 

Fig.  117,  which  is  a  line  drawn  square  to  the  inclined  tangent  h"  from 
w;  connect  w  and  c  in  Fig.  1  IS.  The  bevel  shown  at  w  will  be  the  one 
to  be  applied  to  the  joint  5  on  tangent  h",  Fig.  117.  Again,  make  am 


Fig    123.    Arranging  Risers    around  Well-Hole  on  Level-Landing  Stair 
with  Radius  of  Central  Line  of  Kail  One-Halt  Width  of  Tread. 

in  Fig.  118  equal  to  the  distance  shown  in  Fig.  117  between  the  line 
representing  the  level  tangent  and  the  line  m'  5,  which  is  the  height  that 


M9 


68 


STAIR-BUII.DING 


Riser 


Riser 


tangent  b"  is  shown  to  rise;  connect  to  to  c  in  Fig.  1 18;  the  bevel  shown 
at  m  is  to  be  applied  to  the  end  that  intersects  with  the  newel  as  shown 
at  m  in  Fig.  117. 

The  wreath  is  shown  developed  in  Fig.  101  for  this  case;  so  that, 
with  Fig.  100  for  plan,  Fig.  101  for  the  development  of  the  wreath, 
and  Figs.  117  and  118  for  finding  the  bevels,  the  method  of  handling 
any  similar  case  in  practical  work  can  be  found. 

How  to  Put  the  Curves  on  the  Face- Mould.     It  has  been  shown 

how  to  find  the 
angle  between  the 
tangents  o  f  the 
faccrmould,  and 
that  the  angle  is 
for  the  purpose  of 
squaring  the  joints 
at  the  -ends  of  the 
wreath.  In  Fig. 
119  is  shown  how 
to  lay  out  the 
curves  by  means 
of  pins  and  a 
string  —  a  very 
common  practice 
_,  among;  stair-build- 

e  r  s  .  In  this 
example  the  face- 
mould  has  equal 
tangents  as  shown 
at  c"  and  d".  The  angle  between  the  two  tangents  is  shown  at  m  as  it 
will  be  required  on  the  face-mould.  In  this  figure  a  line  is  drawn 
from  wparallel  tothe  line  drawn  from  /i,which  is  marked  in  the  diagram 
as  "Directing  Ordinate  of  Section."  The  line  drawn  from  m  will 
contain  the  minor  axes;  and  a  line  draw'n  through  the  corner  of  the 
section  at  3  will  contain  the  major  axes  of  the  ellipses  that  will  consti- 
tute the  curves  of  the  mould. 

The  major  is  to  be  drawn  square  to  the  minor,  as  shown.  Place, 
from  point  3,  the  circle  shown  on  the  minor,  at  the  same  distance  as 
the  circle  in  the  plan  is  fixed  from  the  point  o.    The  diameter 


Riser 


Fig.  124. 


Arrangement  of  Risers  Around  Well-Hole  with  Rad- 
ius Larger  Than  One-Half  Width  of  Tread. 


820 


STAIR-BUILDING 


60 


of  this  circle  indicates  the  width  of  the  cun'e  at  this  point.    The  width 
at  each  end  is  detennined  bv  the  bevels.    The  distance  a  b,  as  shown 


Fig.  125.    AiTangement  of  Risers  around  Well-Hole,  with  Risers  Spaced 

Full  Width  of  Tread. 

upon  the  long  edge  of  the  bevel,  is  equal  to  |  the  width  of  the  mould,  and 
is  the  hypotenuse  of  a  right-angled  triangle  whose  base  is  ^  the  width  of 
the  rail.    By  placing  this  dimension  on  each  side  of  n,  as  shown  at  6 


RisoT- 

r  ^ 

Blaer 

Rlser- 

Riser 


Fig.  126.     Plan  of  Stair 
Shown  in  Fig.  123. 


Fig.    127.      Plan    of    Stair 
Shown  in  Fig.  124. 


Fig.  128.      Plan  of  Stair 
Shown  in  Fig.  125. 


and  b,  and  on  each  side  of  h"  on  the  other  end  of  the  mould,  as  sho'^Ti 
also  at  b  and  b,  we  obtain  the  points  6  2  6  on  the  inside  of  the  cun-e,  and 


221 


70 


STAIR-BUILDIXG 


the  points  h  ]  h  on  the  outside.     It  will  now  be  necessary  to  find  the 
clliptic-al  curves  (hat  will  contain  these  points;  and  before  this  can  be 

done,  the  exact  length  of  the  wmor  and 
major  axes  respectively  must  be  deter- 
mined. The  length  of  the  minor  axis 
for  the  inside  curve  will  be  the  dis- 
tance shown  from  3  to  2;  and  its  length 
for  the  outside  will  be  the  distance 
shown  from  3  to  1 . 

Pitch  '^^  ^"*^^  ^^^^  length  of  the  major  axis 

'Board  for  the  inside,  take  the  length  of  half  the 
minor  for  the  inside  on  the  dividers: 
place  one  leg  on  h,  extend  to  cut  the 
major  in  z,  continue  to  the  minor  as 
shown  at  k.  The  distance  from  h  to  ^* 
will  be  the  length  of  the  semi-major  axis  for  the  inside  curve. 

To  draw  the  curve,  the  points  or  foci  w^here  the  pins  are  to  be 
fixed  must  be  found  on  the  major  axis.  To  find  these  points,  take 
the  length  of  b  k  (which  is,  as  previously  found,  the  exact  length  of 


FiR.   129.      Drawing   Face-MonUl 
for  Wreath  from  Pitch-Board. 


Landinq  Rail 


Fig.  130.    Development  of  Face-Mould  for  Wreath  Connecting   Rail 
of  Flight  with  Level- Landing  Kail. 


the  semi-major  for  the  inside  curve)  on  the  dividers;  fix  one  leg  at  2, 
and  describe  the  arc  Y,  cutting  the  major  where  the  pins  are  shown 
fixed,  at  0  and  o.    Now  take  a  piece  of  string  long  enough  to  form  a 


2^2 


STAIR-BUILDIXG 


loop  around  the  two  and  extending,  when  tight,  to  2,  where  the  pencil 
is  placed ;  and,  keeping  the  string  tight,  sweep  the  curve  from  btob. 


Step 


Step 


Step 


Step 


^^T^ 


Joint 


Fig.   131.     Arranginji  Risers  iu 
Quarter-Tnrn  between  ° 

.Two  Fllght-s. 


The  same  method,  for  finding  the  major  and  foci  for  the  out-side 
curve,  is  shown  in  the  diagram.  The  line  drawn  from  h  on  the  outside 
of  the  joint  at  n,  to  ic,  is  the  semi-major  for  the  out,si(le  curve;  and  the 


Ffiser 


Fig.  132.    Arrangement  of  Risers  aronnil  Quarter-Turn  Giv- 
ing Tangent*;  Ecjual  Pitch  with  Connecting  Flight. 

points  where  the  outside  pins  are  shown  on  the  major  will  be  the  foci. 
To  draw  the  curves  of  the  mould  according  to  this  method,  which 


223 


72 


STAIR-BUILDING 


1 


m" 


is  a  scientific  one,  may  seem  a  complicated  problem;  but  once  it  is 
understood,  it  becomes  very  simple.    A  simpler  way  to  draw  them, 

however,  is  shown  in  Fig.  120. 

The  witlth  on  the  minor  and  at  each  end 
will  have  to  be  determined  by  the  method  just 
explained  in  connection  with  Fig.  119.  In 
Fig  120,  the  points  b  at  the  ends,  and  the  points 
in  which  the  circumference  of  the  circle  cuts 
the  minor  axis,  will  be  points  contained  in 
the  curves,  as  already  explained.  Now  take  a  flexible  lath;  bend  it 
to  touch  h,  z,  and  b  for  the  inside  curve,  and  b,  w,  and  b  for  the  outside 
curve.  This  method  is  handy  where  the  curve  is  comparatively  flat, 
as  in  the  example  here  shown;  but  where  the  mould  has  a  sharp  curva- 


Fig.  133.    Finding  Bevil 

for  Wreath  of  Plan, 

Fig.  133. 


Fig.  134.    Well-Hole  with  Riser  in  Center.    Tangents  of  Face-Mould,  and  Central  Line 

of  Rail,  Developed. 

ture,  as  in  case  of  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  101,  the  method  shown  in  Fig. 
119  must  be  adhered  to. 

With  a  clear  knowledge  of  the  above  two  methods,  the  student 
will  be  able  to  put  curves  on  any  mould. 

The  mould  shown  in  these  two  diagrams,  Figs.  119  and  120,  is 
for  the  upper  wreath,  extending  from  h  to  n  in  Fig.  94  A  practical 
h.mdrailcr  would  draw  only  what  is  shown  in  Fig.  120.     He  would 


224 


\ 


STAIR-BUILDIXG 


73 


take  tlie  lengths  of  tangents  from  Fig.  94,  and  place  them  as  shown 
at  hm  and  m  n.  By  comparing  Fig.  120  with  the  tangents  of  the 
upper  wreath  in  Fig.  94,  it  ^^^ll  be  easy  for  the  student  to  understand 


Fig.  135.    Arrangement  of  Risers  in 
Stair  with  Obtuse-Angle  Plan. 


Fig.  136.  Arrangement  of  Risers  in  Obtuse- 
Angle  Plan.  Giving  Equal  Pitch  over  Tan- 
gents  and  Flights.    Face-Mould    Developed. 


the  remaining  lines  shown  in  Fig.  120.    The  bevels  are  shown  applietl 

to  the  mould  in  Fig.  105,  to  give  it  the  twist.    In  Fig.  106,  is  shown  how, 

after  the  rail  is  t\A'isted  and 

placed  in  position  over  and 

above  the  quadrant  c  d  in 

Fig.  94,  its  sides  will  be 

plumb. 

In  Fig.  121  are  shown 
the  tangents  taken  from 
the  bottom  wreath  in  Fig.  . 
95  It  was  shown  how  to 
develop  the  section  and 
find  the  angle  for  the  tan- 
gents in  the  face-mould,  Fig.  137. 
m  Fig.  113.  The  method 
shown  in  Fig.  119  for  putting  on  the  curs^es,  would  be  the  most  suitable. 

Fig.  121  is  presented  more  for  the  purposes  of  study  than  as  a 
method  of  construction.    It  contains  all  the  lines  made  use  of  to  find 


Arrangement  of  Risers  in  Flight  with 
Curve  at  Landing. 


225 


74 


STAIR-BUILDING 


/I 

^N 

Landing  Rail 

1 

\\m 

1 

, 

^^ 

1 

',^^ 

Landing  Flooi' 

^ 

1 
I 

f     Plan 

/^ 

* 
N 

Fig.  138.    Development  of  Face-Moulds 
for  Plan,  Fig  137. 


the  developed  section  of  a  plane  inclining  unequally  in  two  different 
directions,  as  shown  in  Fig.  122. 

Arrangement  of  Risers  in  and  around  Well-Hole.  An  important 
matter  in  wreath  construction  is  to  have  a  knowledge  of  how  to 

arrange  the  risers  in  and  around  a 
well-hole.  A  great  deal  of  labor 
and  material  is  saved  through  it; 
also  a  far  better  appc^araiice  to  the 
finished  rail  may  be  secured. 

In  level-landing  stairways,  the 
easiest  example  is  the  one  shown 
in  Fig.  123,  in  which  the  radius  of 
the  central  line  of  rail  is  made 
equal  to  one-half  the  width  of  a  tread.  In  the  diagram  the  radius  is 
shown  to  be  5  inches,  and  the  treads  10  inches.  The  risers  are  placed 
in  the  springing,  as  at  a  and  a.  The  elevation  of  the  tangents  by  this 
arrangement  will  be,  as  shown,  one  level  and  one  inc^lined,  for  each 
piece  of  wreath.  When  in  this  position,  there  is  no  trouble  in  finding 
the  angle  of  the  tangent  as  required  on  the  face-mould ,  owing  to  that 
angle,  as  in  every  such  case,  being  a  right  angle,  as  shown  at  w;  also 
no  special  bevel  will  have  to  be  found,  because  the  upper  bevel  of  the 
pitch-board  contains  the  angle  required. 

The  same  results  are  obtained  in  the  example  shown  in  Fig. 
124,  in  which  the  radius  of  the  well-hole  is  larger  than  half  the  width 
of  a  tread,  by  placing  the  riser  a  at  a  distance  from  c  equal  to  half 
the  width  of  a  tread,  instead  of  at  the  springing  as  in  the  preceding 
example. 

In  Fig.  125  is  shown  a  case  where  the  risers  are  placed  at  a  dis- 
tance from  c  equal  to  a  full  tread,  the  effect  in  respect  to  the  tangents 
of  the  face-mould  and  bevel  being  the  s£|,me  as  in  the  two  preceding 
examples.  In  Fig.  126  is  shown  the  plan  of  Fig.  123;  in  Fig.  127, 
the  plan  of  Fig.  124;  and  in  Fig.  128,  the  plan  of  Fig.  125.  For  the 
wreaths  shown  in  all  these  figures,  there  will  be  no  necessity  of  spring- 
ing  the  plank,  which  is  a  term  used  in  handrailing  to  denote  the 
twisting  of  the  wreath;  and  no  other  lievel  than  the  one  at  the  upper 
end  of  the  pitch-board  will  be  required.  This  type  of  wreath,  also, 
is  the  one  that  is  required  at  the  top  of  a  landing  when  the  rail  of  the 
flight  intersects  with  a  level-liuidinij  rail. 


226 


STAIR-BUILDING  75 


In  Fig.  129  is  shown  a  very  simple  method  of  drawing  the  face- 
mould  for  this  wreath  from  the  pitch-board.  ^Nlake  a  c  equal  to  the 
radius  of  the  plan  central  line  of  rail  as  shown  at  the  curve  in  Fig.  130. 
From  where  line  c  c"  cuts  the  long  side  of  the  pitch-board,  the 
line  c"  a"  is  drawn  at  right  angles  to  the  long  edge,  and  is  made 
equal  to  the  length  of  the  plan  tangent  a  c,  Fig.  130.  The  curve  is 
drawn  by  means  of  pins  and  string  or  a  trammel. 

In  Fig.  131  is  shown  a  quarter-turn  between  two  flights.  The 
correct  method  of  placing  the  risers  in  and  around  the  curve,  is  to  put 
the  last  one  in  the  first  flight  one-half  a  step  from  springing  c,  and 
the  first  one  in  the  second  flight  one-half  a  step  from  a,  leaving  a  space 
in  the  curve  equal  to  a  full  tread.  By  this  arrangement,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  132,  the  pitch-line  of  the  tangents  will  equal  the  pitch  of  the 
connecting  flight,  thus  securing  the  second  easiest  condition  of  tan- 
gents for  the  face-mould — namely,  as  shown,  two  equal  tangents. 
For  this  wreath,  only  one  bevel  will  be  needed,  and  it  is  made  up  of 
the  radius  of  the  plan  central  line  of  the  rail  o  c,  Fig.  131,  for  base, 
and  the  line  1-2,  Fig.  132,  for  altitude,  as  shown  in  Fig.  133. 

The  bevel  shown  in  this  figure  has  been  previously  explained  in 
Figs.  105  and  106.    It  is  to  be  applied  to  both  ends  of  the  wreath. 

The  example  shown  in  Fig.  134  is  of  a  well-hole  having  a  riser 
in  the  center.  If  the  radius  of  the  plan  central  line  of  rail  is  made 
equal  to  one-half  a  tread,  the  pitch  of  tangents  will  be  the  same  as 
of  the  flights  adjoining,  thus  securing  two  equal  tangents  for  the  two 
sections  of  wreath.  In  this  figure  the  tangents  of  the  face-mould  are 
developed,  and  also  the  central  line  of  the  rail,  as  shown  over  and 
above  each  quadrant  and  upon  the  pitch-line  of  tangents. 

The  same  method  may  be  employed  in  stairways  having  obtuse- 
angle  and  acute-angle  plans,  as  shown  in  Fig.  135,  in  which  two  flights 
are  placed  at  an  obtuse  angle  to  each  other.  If  the  risers  shown  at 
a  and  a  are  placed  one-half  a  tread  from  c,  this  will  produce  in  the 
elevation  a  pitch-line  over  the  tangents  equal  to  that  over  the  flights 
adjoining,  as  shown  in  Fig.  13G,  in  which  also  is  shown  the  face-mould 
for  the  wreath  that  will  span  over  the  curve  from  one  flight  to  another. 

In  Fig.  137  is  shown  a  flight  having  the  same  curve  at  a  landing. 
The  same  arrangement  is  adhered  to  respecting  the  placing  of  the 
risers,  as  shown  at  a  and  a.  In  Fig.  13S  is  shown  how  to  develop  the 
face-moulds- 


227 


HOUSE  IN  THE  WHITE  MOUNTAINS,  NEW  HAMPSHIRE 

The  Boulders,  which  ai-e  Plentiful  inlhis  Region,  have  been  Used  to  Good  Advantage, 


HOUSE  NEAR  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 
It  is  Verily  a  Part  of  the  Landscape. 


ESTIMATING 

PART   I 


* 


Introductory.  The  ability  to  estimate  may  be  considered  as  the 
dividing  line  between  the  journeyman  and  the  master  builder,  for, 
no  matter  how  skilful  a  mechanic  mav  become,  he  can  never  "han^y 
out  his  shingle"  and  invite  patronage  in  his  distinctive  line  of  work, 
unless  he  becomes  able  to  make  reliable  estimates  of  material  and 
labor  to  be  furnished.  To  do  this  something  more  than  mere  accuracy 
and  quickness  in  figures  or  a  mastery  of  mathematics  is  needed; 
namely:  experience  and  judgment,  an  understanding  of  the  more  or 
less  complicated  details  which  go  to  make  up  a  building,  and  a  knowl- 
edge of  current  prices  and  discounts  in  the  trade.  It  is  the  object  of 
this  paper  to  point  the  way  toward  the  acquirement  of  such  of  these 
needs  as  may  be  imparted  by  words  or  figures;  that  is,  to  put  in  con- 
densed form  some  of  the  common  methods  by  which  estimates  are 
made  up,  and  to  point  out  some  of  the  things  which  are  to  be  avoided. 

Prices.  As  prices  of  labor  and  materials  are  constantly  shifting, 
those  quoted  in  this  paper  must  be  taken  only  as  proportionate,  to 
be  used  in  comparison  with  known  quantities  and  methods.  All 
prices  given  are  as  current  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in  December,  1906, 
and  are  subject  to  immediate  change.  On  account  of  the  varia- 
bleness in  price  of  labor  and  materials,  it  is  better,  in  general,  to 
make  estimates  on  the  basis  of  days  or  hours,  and  quantities  of 
materials,  so  that  they  may  be  used  for  comparison  in  future  work. 
To  this  end  all  estimates  should  be  carefully  labelled  and  filed  away 
for  future  reference.  This  should  be  done  whether  the  bids  were 
successful  or  otherwise.  If  a  successful  bid,  there  will  arise  a  good 
opportunity  to  compare  the  estimates  of  cost  of  the  different  items, 
with  the  actual  cost  of  execution;  and  if  a  bid  fails  to  win  the  job, 
satisfaction  and  experience  may  be  gained  by  noting  the  items  which 
may  have  been  priced  too  high  or  too  low.  This  data  may  be  of  great 
service  in  preparing  future  estimates,  especially  in  the  comparisons 
between  estimated  and  actually  executed  work. 


*  There  is  no  such  a  thing  as  a  universal  or  permanent  standard  price  for  anything. 
Prices  vary  in  different  localities  at  the  same  time,  and  in  the  same  locality  at  different 
times.  The  estimator  must  therefore  acquaint  himself  with  local  market  conditions  in 
every  case. 


229 


ESTIMATING 


Catalogues.  Catalogues  and  price  lists  of  all  standard  articles 
are  easily  obtained  and  should  be  kept  at  hand,  properly  indexed,  for 
ready  reference,  as  they  contain  a  great  deal  of  specific  information. 
For  close  figuring,  however,  it  will  not  do  to  rely  upon  these  prices, 
as  the  amounts  of  trade  discounts  are  not  always  included.  These 
vary  greatly  from  time  to  time,  and  often  there  are  two  or  more  dis- 
counts, a  trnde  discount,  a  cash  discount,  and  a  variation  in  discounts 
made  by  different  merchants,  all  of  which  the  contractor  must  become 
aware  of  to  obtain  bctt.om  prices. 

All  data  of  this  sort  should  be  carefully  tabulated  for  constant 
reference,  in  such  a  form  thai  I*  may  be  easily  revised  and  kept,  so 
far  as  possible,  up  to  date. 

The  manner  and  time  of  payments  is  a  matter  to  be  considered 
in  this  connection,  as  it  will  permit  the  contractor  to  take  advantage 
of  cash  discounts,  which  often  make  a  great  difference  in  the  cost  of 
certain  materials. 

Profit.  To  the  actual  price  of  labor  and  materials  must  be  added 
the  profit  and  this  will  need  careful  consideration.  A  common  method 
is  to  add  a  lump  sum  to  the  estimated  cost  of  labor  and  materials, 
varying  with  locality  and  customer,  with  the  probable  sharpness  of 
competition  and  the  circumstiinces  of  the  contractor.  This  is  a  care- 
less method,  as  it  leaves  no  means  for  future  comparison  and  no  cer- 
tain knowledge  of  just  what  the  profits  of  a  given  job  are. 

Percentage.  A  better  way  is  to  base  the  profits  upon  a  per- 
centage of  the  estimated  cost.  This  will  vary,  in  ordinary  cases,  from 
ten  to  fifteen  per  cent,  ten  per  cent  being  the  least  that  should  be 
expected  on  any  work,  and  this  is  not  enough  for  small  contracts  of 
two  or  three  thousand  dollars;  but  for  large  work,  where  there  is  a 
great  duplication  »f  parts  and  processes,  it  will  be  enough  in  most 
cases.  Some  contractors,  whose  workmen  are  required  to  perform 
especially  skilful  labor,  figure  fifteen  per  cent  on  all  labor  and  ten 
Dcr  cent  on  materials. 

Duplicate  Parts.  The  matter  of  duplication  is  an  important 
factor  in  estimating,  as  a  considerable  saving  is  often  made  if  large 
quantities  of  material,  cither  worked  or  unworked,  are  required;  this 
is  especially  true  in  manufactured  parts,  such  as  doors  and  windows, 
columns,  balustrades,  etc.  Modern  machines  are  capable  of  dupli- 
cation with  astonishing  rapidity,  and  workmen  can  put  together 


230 


ESTIMATING 


similar  parts  more  quickly  and  cheaply  than  variable  members. 
Transportation.  The  distance  of  the  work  from  the  shop  of  the 
contractor,  or  from  centers  of  manufacture,  will  fiflect  the  cost  to  a 
marked  degree,  as  much  time  is  consumed  in  ceaming  and  especially 
in  handling  material  a  number  of  times. 

If  communication  between  the  works  and  the  building  site  can 
be  established  by  water,  it  will  usually  save  considerable  expense  for 
freight  and  handling,  with  perhaps  less  risk  of  damage,  and  conse- 
quently less  expense  for  crating  and  boxing.  A  careful  study  should 
be  made  of  the  means  of  transportation  to  each  different  building 
site  from  the  shop,  the  office,  and  the  mill,  and  the  data  kept  for  future 
reference,  subject  to  varying  rates  and  conditions,  to  change  of  seasons, 
and  amounts  to  be  transported. 

These  are  some  of  the  more  important  matters  which  require 
preliminary  consideration  as  affecting  all  estimates,  and  are  only  a 
small  part  of  the  real  questions  involved,  as  different  localities  and 
customs  require  different  treatment,  and  numerous  questions  will 
arise  to  confront  the  contractor,  all  of  which  may  be  successfully 
met,  as  we  have  seen,  by  the  exercise  of  care  and  judgment. 

Methods.  Estimates  are  formed  by  many  and  varying  methods, 
depending  upon  the  degree  of  accuracy  required,  the  capability  of 
the  contractor,  and  the  character  of  the  building.  A  broad  division 
may  be  made  between  approximate  estimates  and  accurate  detailed 
estimates,  only  the  latter  of  which  should  be  considered  when  it  is 
the  intention  to  actually  carry  out  the  work  under  a  definite  contract. 

Approximate  Estimates.  Approximate  estimates  are  obtained 
with  varying  degrees  of  accuracy  by  several  methods,  the  most  con- 
venient and  reliable  of  which  is  the  system  of  cubing;  i.e.,  the  cubical 
contents  of  the  proposed  building  is  obtained  and  multiplied  by  a 
given  price  per  cubic  foot.  This  rate  is  obtained  by  careful  com- 
parison of  the  plans  and  requirements  with  similar  buildings  which 
have  been  erected  under  conditions  as  like  as  possible  to  the  con- 
ditions under  which  the  proposed  building  can  be  erected. 

Several  methods  are  used  to  determine  the  cubical  units,  de- 
pending upon  the  size  and  shape  of  the  proposed  building.  One 
method  is  to  multiply  the  square  feet  in  the  plan  of  the  building  by 
the  height  from  half-way  the  depth  of  foundations  to  half-way  up 
the  roof.     Another  system  uses  the  height  from  the  bottom  cf  the 


231 


ESTIMATING 


foundation,  and  another  obtains  the  actual  cubical  contents.  Any 
of  these  may  be  used  if  the  data  for  comparison  is  obtained  in  the  same 
way,  but  all  are  subject  to  important  variations  which  experience  and 
judgment  alone  will  determine.  For  instance,  if  the  contour  of  the 
building  is  very  uneven,  with  low  portions,  such  as  porches  and  sheds, 
and  high  portions,  such  as  towers  and  cupolas,  these  must  either  be 
omitted  from  the  whole  and  compared  separately,  or  a  lump  sum  be 
added  or  subtracted  according  to  the  size  and  elaboration  of  these 
members. 

Another  variation  arises  in  the  size  of  rooms,  giving  a  ratio  of 
partitions  and  division  walls  which  is  not  constant,  and  of  course  a 
large  building  with  many  duplicate  parts  will  require  a  different 
rating  from  a  smaller  one,  so  that  the  method  of  estimating  by  cubing 
is  at  best  approximate,  and  its  degree  of  accuracy  depends  largely 
upon  the  experience  and  judgment  of  the  contractor.  Even  long 
experience  will  afford  no  safe-guard  against  unusual  elaboration  of 
interior  or  exterior,  so  that  cube  rates  can  only  be  applied  to  buildings 
of  ordinary  character,  and  comparisons  are  only  reliable  between 
buildings  of  like  description  and  uses,  as  the  treatment  of  even  the 
same  materials  will  vary  largely  in  buildings  of  varying  uses. 

The  height  of  the  building  will  not  increase  the  cube  rate  pro- 
portionately, unless  the  internal  voids  are  alike,  although  it  is  cer- 
tain that  the  higher  one  builds  from  the  ground,  the  more  time  and 
expense  it  requires  to  put  the  material  in  place,  to  say  nothing  of 
thicker  walls  and  necessarily  heavier  construction. 

Estimating  by  the  Square.  A  convenient  method  of  estimating 
is  by  the  square  of  one  hundred  surface  feet.  This  is  especially 
applicable  to  office  buildings,  schools,  mills,  stables,  and  all  buildings 
where  the  floors  are  few  in  number  or  similar  in  plan.  For  one  story 
buildings  the  price  per  square  is  taken  to  include  the  roof,  walls,  floor, 
and  foundations,  but  for  buildings  of  two  or  more  stories  the  price 
per  square  should  be  taken  separately  for  each  floor,  the  lower  floor 
being  priced  to  include  the  foundations  and  the  top  floor  to  include 
the  roof. 

This  method  of  estimating  by  the  square  is  not  so  accurate  as 
by  cubical  contents,  but  the  results  are  often  more  convenient  and 
adaptable,  because  the  tabulation  of  the  square  area  of  the  various 
floors  may  be  easily  reduced  to  terms  of  accommodation  for  public 


882 


ESTIMATING  5 


buildings  or  shops.  For  instance,  a  given  floor  area  in  a  school  house 
means  accommodation  for  a  certain  number  of  pupils;  in  a  church, 
a  certain  number  of  sittings;  in  factories  for  the  manufacture  of 
staple  goods,  a  certain  number  of  machines  and  operatives. 

This  unit  of  accommodation  is  sometimes  carried  further,  and, 
by  the  reverse  process,  made  the  basis  of  another  method  of  estimating 
the  approximate  cost  of  such  buildings  as  the  above  mentioned,  i.e., 
schools,  churches,  factories,  hospitals,  etc.  This  is  also  a  method  by 
comparison,  the  known  data  being  supplied  by  previous  experience 
or  calculation,  and  it  is  often  valuable  as  a  means  of  determining  the 
approximate  cost  of  buildings  necessary  to  accommodate  a  given 
number  of  individuals  or  machines,  even  before  any  definite  plans  have 
been  drawn.  All  of  these  methods  are  approximate,  with  varying 
degrees  of  accuracy,  and  should  never  be  advanced  as  accurate,  or 
used  as  the  basis  of  a  contract,  unless  the  contractor  has  had  a  long 
and  varied  experience  and  feels  absolutely  certain  of  his  judgment, 
or  unless  a  proper  margin  is  added  for  possible  variations. 

Estimating  by  Quantities.  The  only  sure  and  correct  method 
of  estimating  is  by  taking  off  the  actual  quantities  in  detail  and  carry- 
ing out  the  prices  accurately  with  the  cost  of  labor,  the  percentage 
for  profit,  and  contingencies  added. 

For  this,  accurate  and  complete  drawings  and  specifications  are 
necessary  to  give  the  absolute  quantity  and  quality  of  materials  and 
labor.  The  various  items  are  then  taken  off,  similar  portions  grouped, 
the  amount  of  labor  estimated,  and  a  complete  and  classified  schedule 
prepared  and  priced  at  current  rates;  the  cost  of  transportation, 
board  of  men,  and  any  other  contingencies  noted,  a  percentage  of 
profit  added,  and  a  sum  total  reached  which  should  be  correct  if 
faithfully  done. 

This,  of  course,  takes  considerable  time,  but  is  well  worth  the 
expense  and  trouble  if  a  definite  contract  is  to  be  made. 

Preparation.  In  order  to  estimate  to  a  sufficient  degree  of 
accuracy,  some  things  other  than  the  possession  of  plans  and  speci- 
fications are  necessary.  A  visit  to  the  site  should  be  made,  to  ascer- 
tain the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  levels  of  the  lot,  the  distance  from  rail- 
road or  wharf,  the  condition  of  the  roads,  if  a  long  haul  is  necessary, 
and  the  preparation  of  the  site  necessary  to  receive  and  dispose  of 
materials.     Some  knowledge  should  be  obtained  of  the  nature  of 


233 


ESTIMATING 


the  sub-soil,  the  presence  of  ledges  or  water  below  the  surface  which 
will  require  especial  or  costly  treatment,  etc.  Often  a  deposit  of  sand 
will  be  found  upon  the  site  which  will  not  only  save  carting  away  of 
material  excavated,  but,  if  of  proper  quality,  it  may  be  used  for  the 
work.  Such  items  are  constantly  occurring  so  that  a  knowledge  of 
existing  conditions  will  be  of  great  advantage  to  the  estimator. 

Regarding  underground  conditions,  there  is  always  an  element  of 
chance,  as  the  most  thorough  examination  will  not  always  reveal 
hidden  perils;  the  author  knows  of  a  case  where  a  mason  had  con- 
tracted for  the  building  of  a  sewer,  and  was  in  a  fair  way  to  make  a 
good  profit,  when  a  narrow  vein  of  quicksand  was  uncovered,  to  over- 
come which  not  only  took  away  all  the  anticipated  profit  but  caused 
a  severe  loss  to  the  contractor  besides. 

Ground  water  is  another  source  of  danger  and  it  will  be  well 
for  the  contractor  to  closely  examine  his  contract,  to  see  to  what  extent 
he  is  to  furnish  protection  from  this  source,  as  a  vein  of  water  which 
may  have  been  temporarily  stopped  or  diverted  by  the  operation  of 
building,  will  sometimes  unexpectjly  make  its  presence  known 
during  or  after  the  completion  of  the  work,  when  it  may  become  a 
source  of  great  annoyance  and  expense  to  the  contractor  if  he  has 
agreed  to  insure  a  waterproof  job.  Numerous  illustrations  could 
be  given  of  the  danger  from  unforeseen  causes  which  can  at  best  be 
only  partially  obviated  by  the  most  careful  examination. 

In  order  to  accurately  take  off  a  building  either  by  quantities, 
square  or  cube,  a  good  knowledge  of  arithmetic  is  necessary;  and, 
while  we  may  assume  that  the  reader  already  possesses  this  know- 
ledge, it  may  be  well  to  include  some  of  the  essential  rules  of  that 
branch  of  arithmetic  which  is  known  as  mensuration. 

This  consists  primarily  in  the  science  of  obtaining  definite  data 
regarding  given  figures  or  surfaces,  such  as  areas,  solids,  capacity, 
linear  dimensions,  and  comparisons  of  bodies. 

Definitions.  The  area,  or  superficial  dimension  of  any  figure 
is  the  measure  of  its  surface,  without  regard  to  its  thickness  or  any 
other  dimension. 

The  cubical  contents  of  any  figure  is  the  measure  of  its  solidity, 
or  whole  capacity,  and  has  reference  to  the  three  dimensions,  length, 
breadth,  and  thickness. 


234 


RESIDENCE  FOR  MRS.  THOS.  G.  GAGE,  ROGERS  PARK,  CHICAGO,  ILL. 

John  B.  Fischer,  Architect,  Chicago,  IlL 

View  Looking  Southeast.    Lower  Story  Cement,  Rough  Sand  Finish;  Second  Story  Finish 

Shingles  Stained  a  Warm  Brown;  Woodwork  around  Windows  and  Gable  .Stained  a 

Few  Shades  Darker  than  Shingles;  Roof  Shingles  Stained  a  Dull  Red. 

For  Interiors,  See  Page  S.'Sl. 


Cost  of  House: 

Excavation $    27.50 

Masonry 477  20 

Carpentry. 2,S?.'S.  lo 

Sheet-Metal  Work. 70.00 

Plastering 430  00 

Plumbing  and  Gas  fitting 4.50  00 

Heating  (Hot- Water) 449.40 

Tile  Work   (3    Mantels,  and   Bath- 
room Floor) IM  60 

Painting  and  Glazing 212.00 

Hardware 60. 00 

Decorating. 70  00 

Electric  Wiring 80  00 

Electric  and  Gas  Fixtures 88  20 

Window  Screens 20  00 

Storm  Sash. ."iO  00 

Window  Shades 19  00 

Cement  Walk 23  00 

Grading,  Trees  and  Shrubs 72.00 

TotaL *5,162.00 

Built  in  1903. 


POBXIM 

»'  -    17' 


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rSRST   FLCCE  PLAN 


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ei 

Jj 

if? 

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1   lit 

p 

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PV^' 

RESIDENCE  FOR  MRS.  THOS.  G.  GAGE.  ROGERS  PARK,  CHICAGO,  ILL. 

John  B.  Fischer,  Architect,  Chicago 
The  Porch  Faces  East  toward  Lake  Michigan. 


'OECOND  rLODB  PLAN  . 


ESTIMATING 


If  the  figure  is  considered  as  hollow,  then  the  cubical  contents 
becomes  its  capacity  or  capability  of  containing  matter. 

The  linear  dimension  of  a  figure  is  expressed  by  its  length  in  a 
direct  line  in  any  direction  and  has  no  regard  to  breadth  or  thickness. 

Units.  The  application  of  these  dimensions  is  made  by  fixing 
a  unit  by  which  the  figure  may  be  compared  and  the  required  dimen- 
sion obtained;  thus,  for  calculating  the  area  of  a  figure  the  unit  is 
usually  a  square,  one  side  of  which  is  the  unit  of  length,  and  the  area 
becomes  the  square  measure  of  the  figure. 

This  is  expressed  in  common  terms  by  square  inch,  square  foot, 
square  yard,  or  any  other  given  unit  and  the  measure  of  the  surface  is 
computed  by  obtaining  the  number  of  these  square  units  which  are 
contained  in  the  figure,  the  process  being  called  squaring. 

In  a  similar  manner  the  cubical  contents  or  solidity  of  a  figure 
is  obtained  by  computing  the  number  of  cubical  units  which  it  con- 
tains, which  is  called  cubing  it. 

Rules.  Numerous  rules  have  been  adopted  for  obtaining  these 
dimensions  when  given  dimensions  are  known,  and  a  tabulation  of 
some  of  the  more  important  and  useful  of  these  follows,  by  means 
of  which  it  is  hoped  that  the  student  may  be  able  to  solve  most  of  the 
ordinary  problems  which  will  arise  in  common  practice. 


RULES  AND  TABLES 
TABLE  OF    MULTIPLES 


Circumference  of  a  circle 
Ai'ea  of  a  circle 

Area  of  a  circle 

Area  of  a  circle 

Area  of  a  circle 


Radius 

of  a  circle 

Radius 

of  a  circle 

Diameter 

of  a  circle 

Diameter 

of  a  circle 

Side  of  an  inscribed  square 
Side  of  an  inscribed  square 
Side  of  an  equal  square 
Area  of  a  triangle 


diameter  X  3.1416 
square  of  the  radius  X  3.1416 
square  of  the  diameter  X  0.7854 
square  of  the  circumference  X  0.07958 
half   the   circumference    X    half   the 

diameter 
circumference  X  0.159155 
square  root  of  the  area  X  0.56419 
circumference  X  0.31831 
square  root  of  area  X  1.12838 
diameter  X  0.7071 
circumference  X  0.2251 
diameter  X  0.8862 
base  bv  i  the  altitude 


235 


8 


ESTIMATING 


Area  of  an  ellipse  = 

Surface  of  a  sphere  == 

Surface  of  a  sphere  = 

Surface  of  a  sphere  = 

Solid  contents  of  a  sphere  = 

Solid  contents  of  a  sphere  = 

Diameter          of  a  sphere  = 

Diameter          of  a  sphere  = 

Circumference  of  a  sphere  = 

Solid  contents  of  a  cone  or 

pyramid  = 

Surface  of  a  cube  = 

Area  of  trapezoid  = 

Note— Volumes  of  similar 
their  similar  lines. 


product  of  both  diameters  X  •/' 
circimiference  X  diameter 
square  of  the  diameter  X  3.1416 
scjuare  of  the  circumference  X  0.3183 
surface  X  ^  of  its  diameter 
cube  of  diameter  X  0.5230 
square  root  of  surface  X  0.60419 
cube  root  of  solidity  X  1.2407 
cube  root  of  solidity  X  3.8978 

area  of  base  X  I  altitude 

six  X  area  of  one  side 

altitude  X  2  sum  of  parallel  sides 

solids  are  to  each  other  as  the  cubes  of 


MEASURE   OF   LINES  AND    SURFACE 

1.     To  find  the  area  of  a  parallelogram:    Rule — Multiply  the 
length  by  the  breadth  or  perpendicular  height.     See  Fig.  1 


Are<a.=<aTDxtc 


Area.  =  d.e  x  be 
Fig.  1. 


2.  To  find  the  area  of  a  triangle:  Rule — Multiply  the  base 
by  half  the  altitude.     See  Fig.   2. 

3.  To  find  the  hypothenuse  of  a  right-angled  triangle  when 
the  base  and  perpendicular  are  known:  Rule — Add  together  the 
sfjuare  of  the  known  sides  and  extract  the  square  root  of  the 
sum.     See  Fig.  3. 

4.  To  find  one  side  of  a  right-angled  triangle  when  the  hy- 
pothenuse and  the  other  side  are  known:  Rule — From  the  square 
uf  the    hypothenuse   subtract    the    sfjuarc   of   the   given   ^itle,  and 


236 


ESTOIATIXG 


AT-edLstcx^dd 


Fig.  2. 


C      CI 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


Ared=/d.cx2  bfj+Z^acx^  de  ) 
Fig.  5. 


237 


10 


ESTDIATING 


the  square  root  of  the  remainder  will  be  the  other  side.     See  Fig.  4. 

5.  To  find  the  area  of  a  trapezium:  .Rule — Divide  the  figure 
into  triangles  by  drawing  a  diagonal  and  the  sum  of  the  areas  of 
these  triangles  will  be  the  area  of  the  trapezium.     See  Fig.  5. 

6.  To  find  the  area  of  a  trapezoid:  Rule — Add  the  two  par- 
allel sides  and  mutliply.  by  one-half  the  perpendicular  distance  between 


lem.     See  Fig. 

C. 

a 

\ 

e 

\ 

< 

Ared=i'ae(<atH 

hdc) 

Fig 

.  6. 

ATea=a+t+c+d 

Fig.  7. 

7.  To  find  tlie  area  of  a  regular  polygon:  Rule — INIultiply 
one  side  by  half  its  perpendicular  distance  from  the  center,  and 
this  product  by  the  number  of  sides. 

Table  of  Multiples  to  Compute  Measurements  of  Regular  Polygons,  the 

Side  of  the  Polygon  Being  Unity 


Name  op  Polygon 


Triangle. . . 
Tetragou  . . 
J'eutagon. 
I  le.xagoii . . 
Jleptagou  . 
Octagon . . . 
Nouagou. . 
Decagon.. . 
Fiidecagou 
Dodecagon 


A 

B 

C 

D 

No.  OF 

Radius  of 
Circum- 

Length 

Radius  of 

SlUES 

Area 

of  the 

Inscribed 

scribing 

CIRCLE 

Side. 

Circle 

3 

0.433013 

0.5773 

1.732 

0.2887 

4 

1 

0.7071 

1.4142 

0.5 

5 

1.720477 

0.8506 

1.1756 

0.6882 

G 

2.,'59S076 

1 

1 

0.866 

7 

3.633912 

1.1524 

0.8677 

1.0.383 

8 

4.S2S427 

1.3066 

0.76.53 

1.2071 

9 

G.  181 824 

1.4619 

0.684 

1.3737 

10 

7.694209 

1.618 

0.618 

1.5383 

11 

9.36.564 

1.7747 

0.5634 

1.7028 

12 

11.196152 

1.9319 

0.5176 

1.866 

8.  To  find  the  area  of  a  regular  polygon  when  the  length 
of  a  side  only  is  given:  7??//6'— Multiply  the  square  of  the  side  ly 
the  number  opposite  the  name  of  the  polygon  in  Column  A. 

9.  To   find   the   radhis  of  a   circumscribing  circle  when   the 


238 


ESTIMATING 


11 


length  of  a  side  only  is  given :    Rule — Multiply  the  length  of  a  side  of 
the  polygon  by  the  number  in  Column  B, 

10.  To  find  the  length  of  side  of  a 
polygon  that  is  contained  in  a  given 
circle,  when  the  radius  of  the  circle  is 
known:  Rule — Multiply  the  radius  of 
the  circle  by  the  number  opposite  the 
name  of  the  polygon  in  Column  C. 

11.  To  find  the  radius  of  a  circle 
that  can  be  inscribed  in  a  given  poly- 
gon, when  the  length  of  a  side  is  given: 
Ride — INIultiply  the  length  of  a  side  of  the 
polygon  by  the  number  opposite  the  name  of  the  polygon  in  Column  D. 


Ared=^b)-(cd)x.7854- 

Fig.  8. 


Ld-teTdl    A-red=2  acxfL+c+d+e+^+a] 

Fig."  9. 

12.  To  find  the  area  of  an  irregular  polygon:  Rule — Divide 
the  polygon  into  triangles  and  add  the  areas  of  all 
the  triangles.    Fig.  7. 

13.  To  find  the  area  of  a  ring  included  be- 
tween the  circumferences  of  two  concentric  cir- 
cles: Rule — Square  the  diameters  and  multiply 
difference  bet w^een  the  square  by  .7854.     Fig.  8. 

14.  To  find  the   area   of    an  ellipse:    Rule — 
^'^'  *  Pyramid!"'"  "^     IMultiply  the  two  axes  together  and  the  product 

multiplied  by  .7854  will  be  the  area. 
15.     To   find  the   circumference  of  an  ellipse:     Rule — Square 


239 


12 


ESTIMATING 


AREAS  OF  CIRCLES 

Size 

Area 

Size 
10 

Area 

Size 
30 

Area 

Size. 
65 

Area 

i 

0.0123 

78.54 

706.86 

3318.3 

0.0491 

h 

86.59 

31 

754.76 

66 

3421.2 

g 

0.1104 

11 

95.03 

32 

804.24 

67 

3525.6 

o 

^ 

0.1963 

i 

103.S6 

33 

855.30- 

68 

3631.6 

* 

g 

0.3067 

12 

113.09 

34 

907.92 

69 

3739.2 

1 

0.4417 

i 

122.71 

35 

962.11 

70 

3848.4 

* 

* 

0.6013 

13 

132.73 

36 

1017.8 

71 

3959.2 

1 

0.7854 

h 

143.13 

37 

1075.2 

72 

4071.5 

i 

0.9940 

14 

153.93 

38 

1134.1 

73 

4185.3 

i 

1.227 

h 

165.13 

39 

1194.5 

74 

4300.8 

f 

1.484 

15 

176.71 

40 

1256.6 

75 

4417.8 

'  • 

1.767 

i 

188.69 

41 

1320.2 

76 

4536.4 

2.073 

16 

201.06 

42 

1385.4 

77 

4656.0 

.  . 

2.405 

i 

213.82 

43 

1452.2 

78 

477S.3 

■  ■ 

2.761 

17 

226.98 

44 

1520.5 

79 

4901.6 

9 

2 

3.141 

h 

240.52 

45 

1590.4 

80 

5026.5 

3.976 

18 

254.40 

46 

1601.9 

81 

5153.0 

4.908 

i 

268.80 

47 

1734.9 

82 

52S1.0 

5.939 

19 

283.52 

48 

1809.5 

83 

5410.0 

3 

7.068 

i 

298.64 

49 

1885.7 

84 

5541.7 

8.295 

20 

314.16     • 

50 

1963.5 

85 

5674.5 

9.621 

h 

330.00 

51 

2042.8 

86 

5808.8 

11.044 

21 

346.30 

52 

2123.7 

87 

5944.6 

4     • 

12.566 

i 

363.05 

53 

2206.1 

88 

6082.1 

15.904 

22 

380.13 

54 

2290. 2 

89 

6221.1 

5 

19.635 

i 

397.60 

55 

2.37.5.8 

90 

6361.7 

23.758 

23 

415.47 

56 

2463.0 

91 

6503.8 

6 

28.274 

i 

433.73 

57 

2551.7 

92 

6647.6 

33.183 

24 

452.39 

58 

2642.0 

93 

6792.9 

7 

38.484 

i 

471.43 

59 

2733.9 

94 

6939.7 

44.178 

25 

490.87 

60 

2827.4 

95 

7088.2 

S 

50.265 

26 

530.93 

61 

2922.4 

96 

7238.2 

56.745 

27 

572.55 

62 

3019.0 

97 

7389.8 

9 

63.617 

28 

615.75 

63 

3117.2 

98 

7542.9 

70.882 

29 

660.52 

04 

3216.9 

99 

1       7697.7 

To  find  the  circumference  of  a  circle  when  diaraeter  is  given,  multiply  the  given  diam- 
eter liy  3.1416. 

To  find  thediameterof  a  circle  when  circumference  is  given,  multiply  the  given  clr 
cumference  by  .31831. 

the  two  axes  and  multiply  the  square  root  of  half  their  sum  by  3.1416. 

AREAS  OF  SOLIDS 

16.  To  find  the  lateral  surface  of  a  prism:  Rule — Multiply 
the  perimeter  of  the  base  by  the  altitude. 

17.  To  find  the  lateral  surface  of  a  regular  pyramid:  Rule — 
Multiply  the  perimeter  of  the  base  by  one-half  the  slant  height. 
Fig.  9. 

18.  To  find  the  lateral  surface  of  the  frustrum  of  a  regular 
pyramid:  Rule — ^Multiply  the  perimeters  of  the  two  ends  by  one- 
half  the  slant  height.     Fig.  10. 


240 


ESTIMATING  13 


SOLID  CONTENTS 

19.  To  find  the  solid  contents  of  a  pyramid:  Rule — Find 
the  area  of  the  base  and  multiply  this  by  3  height. 

20.  To  find  the  solid  contents  of  a  cylinder:  Rule — Multiply 
the  area  of  the  base  by  the  height. 

21.  To  find  the  solid  contents  of  a  cone:  Rule — Multiply 
the  area  of  the  base  by  ^  of  the  height. 

22.  To  find  the  solid  contents  of  a  sphere:  Rule — Multiply 
the  cube  of  the  diameter  by  .5236. 

SCALE  OF  WAGES 

The  item  of  cost  of  labor,  on  construction  of  any  kind,  is  at 
best  a  variable  quantity,  dependent  to  a  large  degree  upon  com- 
petition, demand,   and  labor  organization. 

The  cost  of  labor  is  steadily  on  the  increase,  while  the  hours 
of  labor  are  continually  decreasing!  The  tendency  in  both  direc- 
tions operates  to  a  certain  degree  to  lessen  the  effective  power  of 
labor,  so  that  the  amount  of  work  done  in  a  day  is  not  what  it  repre- 
sented a  few  years  ago. 

The  various  schedules  given  in  the  following  pages  are  based 
upon  the  current  price  of  labor  in  Boston,  IMass.,  in  1906,  and  while 
this  is  likely  to  be  upset  somewhat  by  a  general  advance  in  1907, 
there  is  not  likely  to  be  a  great  difference  for  some  time.  Blank 
spaces  are  left  in  these  columns  so  that  the  student  or  contractor 
can  fill  in  local  or  varying  prices  of  labor. 

Wages,  Per  Day  of  Eight  Hours,  in  Various  Trades,  Boston,  Mass.,  1906 

Carpenters  $3 .  28 

Stone  Masons  4 .  50 .  . . 

Brick  Masons  4.80 

Hod  Carriers  2 .  40 . 

Plasterers  5 .00 

Plasterers'  Helpers  3.00 

Lathers  4.50 

Quarrymen  (9-hour  day)  2 .  50 

Stone  Cutters  4 .  00 

Tile  Setters  4.80 

Tile  Helpers  2.60 


241 


14 

ESTIMATING 

Roofers 

Roofers'  Helpers 

Steam  Fitters 

Steam  Fitters'  Helpers 

Plumbers 

Plumbers'  Helpers 

Gas  Fitters 

Gas  Fitters'  Helpers 

Electricians 

Painters 

EXCAVATION 

$3.50 

2.25 :.' 

4.40 -.  . 

2.25 

4.40 

1.50 

4.40 

2.25 

3.60 

3.00 

Many  considerations,  seen  and  unforeseen,  enter  into  the  cost 
of  excavations,  of  which  the  unforeseen  conditions  can,  at  best, 
be  only  judged  of,  making  it  more  important  that  known  circum- 
stances should  be  carefully  considered.  Among  these  may  be  men- 
tioned the  varying  kinds  of  soil  and  rock,  the  depth  to  which  the 
excavation  can  be  carried  without  shoring,  the  distance  to  which 
the  excavated  material  is  to  be  carried,  and  whether  pumping  or 
bailing  will  be  necessary.  jNIaterial  excavated  to  a  depth  of  six 
feet  can  be  thrown  on  to  the  surface,  but  below  this  depth  a  stage 
will  be  necessarv,  or  else  it  must  be  carted  or  wheeled  out. 

In  taking  off  quantities  for  excavation,  work  in  trenches  should 
be  kept  separate  from  large  areas,  as  the  cost  will  be  greater  on 
account  of  lack  of  room   for  working. 

Where  the  nature  of  the  soil  is  uncertain,  borings  should  be 
made  or  test  pits  dug,  not  only  to  reveal  the  character  of  the  material, 
but  to  determine  the  depth  at  which  "hard  pan"  is  to  be  found. 
This  is  especially  necessary  when  the  specifications  call  for  the 
foundations  of  any  structure  to  be  carried  to  hard  pan,  without 
reference  to  the  drawings,  or  when  no  definite  depth  of  footing 
is  shown. 

In  the  ab.sencc  of  full  instructions,  it  is  best  to  figure  to  excavate 
a  foot  outside  of  all  walls  or  footings,  to  give  ample  working  room; 
and  trenches  for  pipes,  etc.,  should  be  enough  wider  than  the  pipe 
to  allow  of  working  all  arounrl.  Hollows  should  be  made  where 
hubs  rest,  so  as  to  give  a  full  bearing  for  the  pipe. 


242 


ESTIMATING 


15 


In  taking  quantities  in  irregular  ground,  the  plot  should  be 
divided  into  a  number  of  definite  squares  and  the  contents  of  each 
square  taken  separately.     See  Fig.  11. 

Cost  of  Excavating.  The  cost  of  excavating  varies  in  different 
localities  and  under  differing  conditions,  no  two  cases  agreeing  in 
details  or  in  execution.  The  governing  factors  are  experience  and 
judgment.  Excavating  is  usually  priced  by  the  cubic  yard  and 
will  average  about  as  follows: 

Picking— 12  cu.  yds.  per  day  at  $2 .  40  $0 .  20 

Throwing  out— 12  cu.  yds.  per  day  at  $2 .40      .20 


Wheeling  50  ft.  away 


.10 


$0.50 


Fig.  11.    Division  of  plot. 


Excavations  in  clay  or  very  hard  soil  may  cost  from  $0.50  to 
$1.00  while  rock  excavations  will  cost  from  $2.00  to  .$10.00,  or  more, 
according  to  the  nature  and 
position  of  the  rock.  Re-fill- 
ing and  packing  around  walls 
will  cost  usually  from  j  to  ^ 
of  the  price  of  earth  excava- 
tions. Excavation  of  sand 
or  loose  gravel,  which  can  be 
done  by  means  of  a  horse  scraper,  will  cost  $0.30  per  cu.  yd. 

Pile  Foundations.  The  cost  of  piling  varies  with  the  nature 
of  the  soil  and  the  length  of  pile  necessary.  Taking  a  30-ft.  pile 
as  an  average  length,  then  piles  30  ft.  long,  driven  and  cut  off  level 
to  receive  footings,  will  cost  $3.50  to  $4.00  per  pile. 

STONE  WORK 

Stone  walls  are  figured  either  by  the  perch  or  the  cubic  yard. 

In  taking  off  a  stone  foundation,  it  is  customary  to  take  the 
corners  twice,  that  is,  each  different  face  of  the  wall  is  measured 
from  out  to  out,  thus  doubling  the  corners.  This  makes  up  for 
the  extra  labor  of  laying  up  the  corners. 

The  cost  of  a  perch  of  rubble  foundations  laid  in  Rosendale 
cement  mortar,  1  to  3,  may  be  taken  a:^  follows: 


243 


16  ESTIjSIATING 


1  perch  of  stone  $1 .25 

^  barrel  cement  at  $1 .  20  .60 

I  load  sand         at    1 .  75  29 

^  day,  mason      at    4 .  50  1 .  50 

}  day,  laborer     at    2.40  .60     >■       v-;- 

Total  cost  per  perch  $4 .  24 

A  perch  of  rubble  wall  laid  in  Portland  cement  moxta|^  1  to  3, 
will  cost:  j^  <         ^  * 

1  perch  of  stone  $1 .  25 

^  barrel  Portland  cement  at  $2. 10  1.05. 

i  load  sand                          at  $1.75  .29 

^  day,  mason                       at    4 .  50  1 .  50 

^  day,  laborer                      at    2.40  .80 

Total  cost  per  perch  $4.89 

Cut  Stone.  Cut  stonework  is  figured  by  the  cubic  foot,  the 
prices  differing  according  to  the  amount  of  labor  involved  in  the 
cutting;  and  this  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  nature  of  the 
stone,  a  hard  stone  being  more  expensive  to  prepare  than  a  soft 
one.  The  principal  kinds  of  stone  used  in  building  are  granite, 
limestone,  sandstone,  marble,  and  bluestone. 

Granite.  Granite  is  one  of  the  hardest  stones  to  quarry  and 
prepare,  and,  on  account  of  its  cost  it  is  not  so  freely  used  as  lime- 
stone or  marble.  Granite  in  rough  blocks  from  the  quarry  will 
cost  45  to  60  cents  a  cubic  foot,  the  cutting  of  beds  and  joints  w'ill 
cost  25  cents  for  each  square  foot  of  surface  so  treated.  If  the 
face  is  pitched  off  to  a  line  with  rock  face,  it  will  cost  25  cents  per 
square  foot,  while  hammering  in  8-cut  work  will  cost  70  cents  per 
square  foot.  Quincy  granite  will  cost,  in  the  rough,  about  double 
this,  or  $1.20  per  cubic  foot;  the  cutting  will  cost  one-third  more. 

From  this  data  we  may  deduce  the  following  scale: 

Granite,  in  rough  blocks  at  quarry,        per  cu.  ft.  $0.60 

Add  for  beds  and  joints                           per  sq.  ft.  .25 

Add  for  rock  face,  pitched  off  to  a  line,  per  sq.  ft.  .25 

Add  for  8-cut  work                     v             per  sq.  ft.  .70 

Hence  the  facing  of  an  average  wall  with  8  inches  of  granite 


V/> 


244 


ESTDIATING 


17 


will  cost,  if  the  stones  arc  about  2  feet  x  3  feet,  or  G  surface  feet  in 

each  block: 

Stock,  4  cu.  ft.  at  .60  $2.40 

Beds  and  end  joints -21  sq.  ft.  at  .25  .67 

-'       i Rock  face  6  sq.  ft.  at.. 25  1.50 


J    Cost  of  6  superficial  ft. 
or  76|^cents  per  square  foot. 


$4.57 


If  the  same  were  finished  in  8-cut  work,  the  cost  of  finishing  the 
.surface  wquld  be  70  cents  a  square  foot 
instead  of  25  cents,  making  the  cost  per 
square  foot  45  cents  more,  or  about  SI. 21 
a  square  foot. 

Limestone.  Limestone  is  used  to  a 
large  extent,  especially  in  conjunction  with 
brick,  for  trimmings  for  various  kinds  of 
buildings.  I/imestone  will  cost  at  the 
quarry  about  .30  cents  a  cubic  foot ;  this 
will  apply  to  Indiana  limestone  only. 
Lake  Superior  redstone  will  cost  35  cents; 
Ohio  sandstone,  50  cents.  In  estimating,  ^.^  ^,  Liu,estone  window  set. 
about  20  per  cent  should  be  added  for  waste,  5  per  cent  quariy  waste, 
and  15  per  cent  for  cutting  waste: 

*  Prices  of  Common  Shapes  of  Limestone 

Water  table,  8  in.  x  12  in.                   per  lineal  foot  $1 .50 

Steps,  7  in.  x  14  in.  without  nosing,  per  lineal  foot  1 .50 

Steps,  7  in.  x  14  in.  with  nosing        per  lineal  foot  2.50 

Door  sills,  8  in.  x  12  in.                        per  lineal  foot  1 .25             ^ 

Window  sills,  5  in.  x  12  in.                 per  lineal  foot  1  .00 

Window  sills,  5  in.  x  8  in.                   per  lineal  foot  .75 

Window  caps,  4  in.  x  10  in.                 per  lineal  foot  .70 

Window  caps,  8  in.  x  12  in.                 per  lineal  foot  1  .00 

Wall  coping,  5  in.  x  20  in.                   per  lineal  foot  1  .50 

Platforms  and  large  slabs,  6  in.  thick,  per  sq.  ft.  2.00 

*  Window  Sets.  A  common  use  of  limestone  is  in  the  fomi  of 
window  sets,  consisting  of  a  flat  arch  in  three  pieces  with  keystone, 
and  a  light  sill,  as  shown  in  Fig.  12. 


*  These  prices  are  based  on  a  freight  charge  of  $0.55  per  cu.  ft.  to  Boston. 
The  freight  on  I^ake  Superior  stone  is  .55 

The  freight  on  Ohio  stone  ,41 


245 


18 


ESTIMATING 


The  rise  of  these  caps  is  about  10  inches,  and  the  rise  of  the  sill  5 
inches.  These  sets  for  an  average  sized  window,  say  4-foot  opening, 
will  cost  for  a  4-inch  reveal  $10,  and  for  an  eight-inch  reveal  S15. 

Sandstone.     The   cost  of  dressed   sandstone   is  about   10   per_^ 
cent  more  than  that  of  limestone. 

Setting.  The  cost  of  setting  cut  stone  may  be  taken  at  15 
cents  a  running  foot  for  window  trimmings  and  ashlar  vrork,  and 


Fig.  13.    Seam-Paced  Granite  Wall. 

20  cents  for  platforms,  water  table,  steps,  etc.     Trimming  and  fit- 
ting at  the  building  will  cost  about  10  cents  per  cubic  foot. 

The  foregoing  prices  are  based  upon  quarry-men's  wages  at 
$2.50  per  day,  and  stone  cutters'  wages  at  $4.00  per  day. 

]\Iuch  of  the  cutting  and  finishing  of  stone  is  done  by  machin- 
ery, so  that  the  question  uf  wages  will  not  enter  into  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  stock  so  largely  as  in  many  other  branches. 

Marble.  A  more  expensive  stone  to  use  is  marble,  which  can  be 
obtained  in  a  variety  of  colors,  in  diflVrent  parts  of  the  country.  The 
price  of  marble  differs  in  different  localities  but  for  general  purposes 


246 


ESTIMATING  19 


may  be  taken  as  about  double  the  figures  which   we  have  quoted  for 
hmestone. 

Bluestone.  Bhiestone  is  used  in  the  East  mainly  for  flagging,  cop- 
ings, etc.,  but  is  used  to  a  considerable  extent  for  building,  in  Central 
and  Western  sections.  The  price  of  bluestone  flagging  3  inches  thick 
with  trimmed  joints  and  face  planed  and  dressed,  will  be  65  cents 
a  square  foot;  with  natural  face,  35  cents  to  45  cents.  Bluestone 
ashlar  8  inches  thick  w^ith  natural  face  and  dressed  joints,  will  cost 
$1.00  per  square  foot,  and  15  cents  a  square  foot  for  setting. 

Seam-Faced  Granite.  In  some  localities  granite,  lying  in  up- 
turned strata  with  open  weathered  seams,  is  to  be  obtained.  This 
is  used  for  facing  walls  in  ashlar  work,  being  set  oh  edge  in  the  wall 
with  the  seam-face  showing;  this  will  cost,  in  place,  4-inch  to  8-inch 
thick,  from  60  cents  to  75  cents  a  superficial  foot.     See  Fig.  13. 

BRICKWORK 

Brickwork  is  usually  estimated  by  the  thousand  bricks,  but  is 
sometimes  priced  by  the  cubic  foot  at  40  cubic  feet  to  a  thousand. 
A  mason  in  one  day  will  lay  from  800  to  1,000  common  bricks,  or  300 
to  400  face  bricks. 

The  number  of  bricks  in  a  wall  may  be  found  by  multiplying  the 
superficial  area  by  7^  for  each  4  inches  of  the  thickness  of  the  wall. 
Openings  of  the  size  of  ordinary  windows  are  generally  deducted, 
but  A-ery  small  openings  will  cost  more  to  make  than  the  deduc- 
tion.    An  allowance  for  breakage  should  be  made  of  5  pef  cent. 

Mortar.  Bricks  are  laid  in  mortar  made  of  lime  or  cement, 
according  to  the  strength  required.  Lime  mortal*  should  not  be  used 
in  damp  situations,  or  where  great  strength  is  required.  The  dif- 
ference in  cost  of  lime  and  cement  mortar  is  so  little  that  cement 
mortar  is  generally  used. 

The  building  laws  of  some  cities  require  brick  work  to  be  laid 
in  cement  mortar  for  a  certain  part  of  the  height. 

Cement  mortar  makes  a  darker  joint,  but  where  a  white  joint  is 
required  it  can  be  obtained,  without  loss  of  strength,  by  using  Port- 
land cement  and  lime  mortar. 

Cost.  The  cost  of  brickwork  by  the  thousand  in  various  kinds 
of  mortar  may  be  analyzed  as  follows: 


247 


20  ESTIMATING 


III   1  -  3  lime  mortar, 

1,000  bricks  $0.00 

3  bu.  lime  at  $.36  per  bu.  1  08 

\  load  of  sand  at  $  1 .  75  per  loai  I  .  88 

10  hours,  mason  at  $.00  per  hour  G .  00 

10  hours,  tender  at  $.30  per  hour  3 .  00 

$19.90 

In  1-3  Rosendale  cement  mortar: 

1,000  bricks  $9.00 

1.V  bbl.  Rosendale  cement  at  $1.20  1 .  80 

^  load  sand  .88 

10  hours,  mason  at  $.60  per  hour  6 .  00 

10  hours,  tender  at  $.30  per  hour  3 .  00 


$20.68 


In  1-3  Portland  cement  mortar : 
1,000  bricks 

11  bbl.  Portland  cement  at  $2.10 
^  load  sand  at  $1.75 
10  hours,  mason  at  $.60  per  hoifr 
10  hours,  tender  at  $.30  per  hour 


$  9.00 

2.62 

.88 

6.00 

3.00 

$21.50 


From  these  tables  we  may  deduce  an  approximate  estimate  in 
round  numbers  as  follows : 

1 ,000  bricks  laid  in  1  -  3  lime  mortar  $20 .  00 

1 ,000  bricks  laid  in.l  -  3  cement  mortar  21 .  00 

1 ,000  bricks  laid  in  1  -  3  Portland  cement  mortar    22 .  00 

So  that,  on  a  job  of  ordinary  size,  the  difference  between  lime 
and  cement  mortar  ought  not  to  be  considered,  where  cement  mortar 
will  give  assurance  of  greater  stability. 

Face  Bricks.  Face  bricks  in  great  variety,  are  to  be  had  either 
plain  or  moulded,  and  in  a  variety  of  colors.  On  ordinary  face 
brickwork  a  mason  with  tender  will  lay  about  300  to  400  bricks  in 
a  day. 


248 


ESTDIATING  2i 


Faced  bricks  cost  from  $25.00  to  $50.00  per  thousand;  a  good 
average  brick  can  be  secured  for  S32.00.  This  will  make  the  price  for 
a  thousand,  laid,  about  as  follows: 

1,000  face  bricks  $32.00 

U  bu.  lime  at  $.36  .45 

^  load  fine  sand  at  $1 .75  .88 

3 days,  mason  at  $4.80  14.40 

H  days,  tender  at  S2.40  3.60 

$51.33 

From  this  we  find  that  1,000  face  bricks  can  be  laid  in  the  wall 
for  $51.33  of  which  $33.33  goes  for  stock  and  $18.00  for  labor. 

Enameled  bricks  are  to  be  had  in  various  colors,  white  and  buff 
beino-  the  most  common.  These  bricks  cost  from  $50.00  to  $60.00 
per  M. 

Concrete.  Concrete  is  used  to  a  great  extent  now  for  footings, 
walls,  piers,  etc.  The  cost  of  concrete  is  not  a  great  deal  different 
from  stone  for  foundations  and  if  there  is  uncovered  a  deposit  of 
suitable  sand  and  gravel,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  it  can  be  put  in 
at  a  less  price  than  a  granite  footing. 

Concrete  with  a  reinforcement  of  steel  is  used  in  various  forms 
for  piers,  floors,  and  walls. 

The  cost  of  a  cubic  yard  of  concrete,  using  the  proportion  of 
1-3  and  6,  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

1  bbl.  Portland  cement  $2.10 

3  bbl.  sand  .75 

6  bbl.  broken  stone  2.00 

Mason,  2  hours  at  $.60  per  hour  1 .  20 

Laborer,  4  hours  at  $.30  per  hour  1-20 

$7.25 

Cellar  concrete  3  inches  thick  will  cost  S.60  to  $.75  per  square 
yard  in  place.  Concrete  of  Rosendale  cement  can  be  put  in  at  less 
cost,  being  for  foundation  walls  about  $6.00  per  cubic  yard;  for 
piers  $6.50  per  cubic  yard. 


249 


22  ESTIMATING 


MISCELLANEOUS  DATA 


CHIMNEYS 


Chimneys  may  be  quickly  estimated  by  the  lineal  foot  of  height, 

as  follows: 

1  flue  8  in.  X    8  in.  per  xoot  $0.90  wfth  flue  lining  $1.10 

1     "     8  in.  X  12  in.  per  foot     1.00      "       "        "  1.25 

1  "  12  in.  X  12  in.  per  foot     1.20      "      "          "  1.50 

2  flues  8  in.  X    8  in.  per  foot     1.40      "      "         "        1.80 
2    ''     8  in.  X  12  in.  per  foot     1.75      "      "         "        2.20 

FLUE  LINING 

Net  price  per  foot,  outside  dimensions. 

^  in.x    8^  inches   $.10                8^  in.  x  17^  inches  $.32 

4^  in.x  13        "         .16               13     in.x  13         "  .30 

Sh  in.x    8|       "         .16               13     in.x  18         "  .42 

8.i  in.x  13       "          .22               18    in.x  18        "  .70 
For  openings  add  one-third. 

MASONS'   SUPPLIES 

Portland  Cement  ■ 

Ro.sentlale  Cement 

Extra  Lime  for  Skimming 

No.  1  Lime  for  Mortar 

Vermont  Lime 

Plaster,  250  lb.  bbls. 

Mortar  Color,  Red,  in  bbls. 

Mortar  Color,  Red,  in  100  or  200  lb.  keg 

Mortar  Color,  black 

Philadelphia  Pressed  Brick,  for  fireplaces      35.00  per  M. 

Fire  Brick  35.00    "    " 

Best  Plastering  Hair  .25  per  bush. 

Mortar  Hods  1.50  each 

Brick  Hods  1.25     " 

10-in.  Mortar  Hoes  .50      " 

Good  No.  2  Shovels,  square  point,  plain  back    .  75      ". 

Sand  Screens,  wood  leg  6.00      " 

Bolted  Dump  Barrows  2.00      " 


2 

.10 

per 

bbl 

,20 

<( 

.15 

li 

.05 

<( 

.20 

<( 

.60 

(( 

Oil 

per 

lb. 

.ou 

(( 

(I 

.03i 

<i 

i( 

250 


East  End  of  Living  Roam  .,. 

The  Mantel  is  Faced  with  Green  Unglazed  Tile.    Flat-Sawed  Oak  Finish,  Stained  Brown  and 
Waxed;  Plaster  Work,  Rough  Sand  Finish  Painted. 


West  End  of  Living  Room 

RESIDENCE  FOR  MRS.  THOS.  G.  GAGE.  ROGERS  PARK,  CHICAGO,  ILL. 

John  B.  Fischer,  Architect,  Chicago 
For  Plans  and  Exteriors,  See  Page  231. 


ESTIMATING  23 


Metal  Corner  Bead  $0.04  per  ft. 

Iron  Rim  and  Cover,  20  in.  diameter  3.50  each 

"       "  "         IS  in.         "  3.00      " 

"       "  "         15  in.         "  2.50      " 

CELLAR    COLUMNS 

For  cellar  support'^,  in  place  of  brick  piers,  pipe  columns  con- 
sisting of  a  steam  pipe  filled  with  cement,  under  a  patent,  are  coming 
into  general  use  in  many  localities. 

These  columns  cost  less,  and  take  up  less  room  than  a  brick 
pier  of  equal  strength.     The  prices  are  as  follows: 


Size. 

7  Ft. 

8  Ft. 

9  Ft. 

10  Ft. 

3    in. 

$1.65 

$1.90 

$2.20 

$2.65 

3i  in. 

1.90 

2.20 

2.65 

3.15 

4    in. 

2.75 

3.25 

3.80 

4.40 

4h  in. 

4.00 

5.00 

5.50 

6.00 

5    in. 

5.00 

5. 85 

6.65 

7.55 

G    in. 

6.00 

6.95 

8.00 

9.30 

EARTHEN    DRAIN 

PIPE 

For  sewer  and  cesspool  connections  and  general  drainage, 
earthen  vitrified  drain  pipes  are  used.  These  are  laid  in  cement  and, 
if  well  below  frost  or  danger  of  breaking,  make  a  more  durable  pipe 
than  cast  iron,  besides  being  much  less  costly. 

Net  Price  of  Standard  Vitrified  Pipe 

Price  per  Foot    Bends  .\nd  Curves     Weight  per  Foot 

$0.17  6  lbs. 

.17 

.23 

.30 

.38 

.70 
1.00 
1.40 
1.90 
2.38 


Inside  Diameter 

Price  per  Fo 

2  in. 

$0.05 

3  in. 

.05 

4  in. 

.07 

5  in. 

.08]- 

6  in. 

.10 

Sin. 

.17 

10  in. 

.26 

12  in. 

.35 

15  in. 

.47 

18  in. 

.60 

8 

10 

12 

16 

24 

34 

45 

67 

86 

2.51 


24  ESTIMATING 


CARPENTRY 

The  Carpenter-Work  of  a  building  includes,  in  general,  the 
skeleton  or  frame,  if  a  wooden  building,  the  floor  timbers,  studs  of 
partitions  and  walls,  rafters,  the  covering  in  of  the  frame,  with  its 
exterior  finish  and  clapboards,  siding  or  shingles,  the  flooring,  furring, 
grounds,  and  beads.  This  practically  covers  the  constructive  wood- 
work or  carpentrv  proper,  while  to  the  term  joinery  belongs  the  out- 
side and  inside  finish,  windows  and  doors,  sheathing  and  dado, 
stairs  and  fixtures. 

In  many  sections  the  general  term  carpentry  covers  all  wood- 
working and  covering,  while  in  others  the  distinction  between  the 
carpenter  and  the  joiner  is  more  distinctly  drawn. 

For  the  purposes  of  this  work  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  hold  this 
distinction,  and  so  for  convenience,  the  term  carpentry  will  be  used 
to  cover  all  branches  of  woodworking. 

Two  distinct  elements  enter  into  the  carpenter-work  of  any 
structure;  the  Material  and  the  Labor,  and  the  cost  of  both  is  subject 
to  fluctuation  to  a  great  extent.  The  trend  in  both  is  in  the  direc- 
tion of  increased  cost  in  varying  degrees  in  different  localities,  but 
the  state  of  the  market  in  both  labor  and  materials  is  never  quiescent, 
so  that  any  printed  prices  must  be  considered  as  comparative  only,  and 
must  be  carefully  compared  with  local  antl  known  data  before  being 
accepted  as  accurate  or  final. 

The  material  with  wliich  the  carpenter  works,  consists  in  the 
main  of  three  principal  divisions,  the  Frame,  the  Covering,  and  the 
Finish,  and  each  of  these  has  further  subdivisions  as  will  be  noted. 

Board  Measure.  All  lumber  which  has  not  been  wrought  or 
moulded,  is  sold  by  "board  m(?asure"  that  is,  the  stock  in  each  piece 
is  reduced  to  a  unit  of  a  scjuaie  foot  of  board  one  inch  thick.  This 
is  called  board  measure  and  is  expressed  by  the  abbreviation  B.  M. 
Prices  of  lumber  are  usually  rated  by  the  thousand  feet,  so  that  the 
expression  "Twenty-five  dollars  a  thousand"  means  twenty -five 
dollars  for  a  thousand  square  feet  of  stock  one  inch  thick.  To  reduce 
stock  of  greater  thickness  than  one  inch,  to  its  equivalent  in  board 
measure,  several  rules  may  be  used. 

A  convenient  method  is  to  divide  the  product  of  the  width  and 
thickness  in  inches  by  12,  and  multiply  by  the  length  in  feet. 


252 


ESTDIATING 


25 


TABLE  OF  BOARD  MEASURE 

LENGTH  IN  FEET 

Size  IN  Inches 

10 

5 

12 
6 

14 

7 

16 

8 

18 
9 

20 

23 
11 

24 
12 

25 

23 

30 
15 

33 

2x     3 

10 

13 

14 

16 

2X    4 

63 

8 

9^ 

105 

12 

134 

145 

16 

174 

185 

20 

214 

2x5 

8J 

10 

115 

i3ii 

15 

16| 

184 

20 

215 

234 

25 

265 

2x6 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

32 

2x7 

II3 

^14 

16^ 

181 

21 

234 

255 

28 

304 

325 

35 

^l^ 

2x    8 

13^ 

16 

185 

2U 

24 

26§ 

294 

32 

345 

374 

40 

455 

2x'  -9 

15 

18 

21 

24 

27 

30 

33 

36 

39 

42 

45 

^8. 

2x  10 

165 

20 

23J 

265 

30 

334 

365 

40 

434 

465 

50 

53^^ 

2  X  12 

20 

24 

28 

32 

36- 

40 

44 

48 

52 

56 

60 

6^- 

2  X  14 

23^, 

28 

325 

37i 

42 

465 

514 

56 

6O5 

654 

70 

741 

2  X  16 

265 

32 

37^ 

425 

48 

534 

5S5 

64 

694 

•  745 

80 

854 

3x4 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

92 

24 

26 

28. 

30 

32 

3x5 

rih 

15 

17* 

20 

22* 

25 

27* 

30 

32* 

35 

37* 

40 

3x6 

15 

18 

21 

24 

27" 

30 

33- 

36 

39" 

42 

45' 

48 

3x7 

17* 

21 

24^ 

28 

3U 

35 

3S* 

42 

454 

49 

52* 

56 

3x8 

20" 

24 

28 

32 

36' 

40 

44 

48 

52 

56 

60 

64 

3x    9 

22  i 

27 

314 

36 

40* 

45 

49* 

54 

58* 

63 

67* 

72 

3x  10 

25' 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55" 

60 

65" 

70 

75 

80 

3  X  12 

30 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

66 

72 

78 

84 

90 

96 

3  X  14 

35 

42 

49 

56 

63 

70 

77 

84 

98 

105 

112 

3x  16 

40 

48 

56 

64 

72 

80 

88 

96 

104 

112 

120 

128 

4x4 

m 

16 

18§ 

2U 

24 

265 

294 

32 

345 

374 

40 

425 

4x    5 

1(35 

20 

23^ 

265 

30 

334 

365 

40 

434 

465 

50 

534 

4x    6 

20 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

52 

56 

60 

64 

4x7 

23^ 

28 

32§ 

37^ 

42 

465 

514 

56 

60  5 

654 

70 

745 

4x    8 

265 

32 

37^ 

425 

48 

534 

585 

64 

694 

745 

80 

854 

4x    9 

30 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

66 

72 

78 

84 

90 

96 

4  X  10 

331 

40 

465 

534 

60 

665 

734 

80 

865 

934 

100 

1065 

4  X  12 

40 

48 

56 

64 

72 

SO 

88 

96 

104 

112 

120 

128 

4  X  14 

465 

56 

651 

745 

84 

934 

1025 

112 

1214 

1305 

140 

1494 

6x6 

30 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

66 

72 

78 

84 

90 

96 

6x8 

40 

48 

56 

64 

72 

SO 

88 

96 

104 

112 

120 

128 

6x  10 

50 

60 

70 

SO 

90 

100 

110 

120 

130 

140 

150 

;160 

6  X  12 

60 

72 

84 

96 

108 

120 

132 

144 

156 

168 

180 

196 

6  X  14 

70 

84 

98 

112 

126 

140 

!l54 

168 

182 

196 

210 

224 

6  X  16 

80 

96 

112 

128 

144 

160 

176 

192 

208 

224 

240 

256 

8x8 

53^ 

64 

745 

854 

96 

1065 

4174 

128 

1385 

1494 

160 

1705 

8x  10 

665 

80 

93  J 

1065 

120 

1334 

1465 

160 

1734 

IS652OO 

2134 

■     8x12 

SO 

96 

112 

128 

144 

160 

176 

192 

20S 

224  ,240 

256 

8  X  14 

93i 

,112 

1305 

1494 

168 

!1865 

2054 

224 

2425 

2614  280 

2985 

10  X  10 

S3\ 

100 

1105 

11334 

150 

11665 

1834 

200 

2165 

2334 

250 

2665 

10  X  12 

100 

120 

140 

160 

ISO 

1200 

220 

240 

260 

280 

300 

320 

10  X  14 

1165 

140 

163^ 

1865 

210 

2334 

2565 

2S0 

3034 

3265 

350 

3734 

10  X  16 

133^ 

160 

1865 

2134 

240 

2665 

,2934 

320 

3465 

3734 

'400 

4265 

12  X  12 

120 

144 

16S 

192 

216 

•240 

264 

28S 

312 

,336 

360 

J384 

12  X  14 

140 

168 

196 

224 

252 

280 

308 

336 

364 

392 

420 

44S 

12  X  16 

160 

192 

224 

256 

288 

320 

352 

3S4 

416 

448 

480 

512 

14  X  14 

163^ 

196 

2285 

J2641 

294 

3265 

3594 

392 

4245 

4574 

490 

5225 

14  X  16 

1865 

224 

261i 

2958 

336 

J3734 

14105 

448 

4854^5225 

560 

i 

j5974 

253 


26  ESTIMATING 


Example.     How  many  feet,  B.  M.,  are  there  in  a  joist  2  in.  x  9  in., 

20  ft.  long? 

2x9 

X  20  =   30  ft.  B.M. 

12 

\\^ien  the  sizes  are  fractional,  or  produce  a  product  not  easily 
divided  by  12,  the  operation  may  sometimes  be  simplified  by  varying 
the  process  and  multiplying  the  length  in  feet,  and  the  thickness  and 
witlth  in  inches  together,  and  dividing  the  whole  product  by  12. 

Example.     How  many  feet  are  there  in  a  joist  2^  in.  x  9  in., 

10  ft.  long? 

16  X  2i  X  9 

— -  30  ft.  B.  M. 

12 

MISCELLANEOUS   PRICES   OF    LUMBER 

LUMBER 

Dimension  spruce  lumber  up  to  9  inches  of  depth  will  cost  at 
present  per  M.,  board  measure. 
10-inch    stock,  per  M. 
For  long  lengths,  add  per  M. 
Hemlock  boarding 
Spruce  boarding 
Spruce  boarding  matched 
Spruce  upper  floor 
Extra  shingles 
Clear  shingles 
Spruce  clapboards 
Siding  cypress 
Drop  or  novelty  siding 
Laths 

Georgia  pine  timbers  12  in. 
Georgia  pine  timbers  14  in. 
Georgia  pine  timbers  16  in. 

FLOORS  AND  FINISH 

Georgia  pine,  heart  face  rift 
Georgia  pine,  common  rift 


$26.00 

30.00 

2.00 

24.00 

25.00 

27.00 

45.00 

4.00 

3.50 

50.00 

30.00 

55.00 

5.00 

35.00 

40.00 

50.00 

$70.00 

45.00 

254 


ESTIMATING  27 


Maple  flooring  S  55.00 

Quartered  oak  flooring  125.00  to    150.00 

North  Carolina  pine,  rift  stock  40.00 

North  Carohna  pine,  slash  stock  33.00 

FINISH 

Georgia  pine  S  45.00 

C^-press  No.  1  80.00 

'       Cypress  No.  2  75.00 

Oak,  plain  90.00 

Oak,  quartered  120.00 

Birch  65.00 

Whitewood  52.00 

Ash  55.00 

Elm  40.00 

INSIDE    DOOR    FRAMES 

2  ft. 'sin.  X  6  ft.  8  in.      -  $1.00 

2  ft.  10  in.  K  6  ft.  8  in.  1 .  10 

3  ft.    0in.x7ft.0in.  1.15 
For  transom  bars  add  .75 

Calculating  the  Frame.  In  taking  off  the  rough  frame  of  a  house 
for  the  purposes  of  estimating,  the  most  accurate  method  is  to  take  a 
schedule  of  ever\'  piece  of  timber  from  the  framing  plans,  but  as  it  often 
happens  that  the  estimates  are  asked  for  from  the  general  drawings, 
before  framings  are  made,  it  has  become  the  custom  in  many 
sections  to  estimate  the  cost  of  the  walls  and  floors  by  the  square  of 
100  superficial  feet,  making  separate  allowance  for  sills,  girders, 
plates,  and  other  large  timbers. 

If  it  is  desired  to  take  off  the  frame  separately  in  the  absence 
of  framing  plans  the  following  data  may  be  of  use. 

The  sills  of  an  ordinar}-  house  will  usually  be  from  6  in.  x  6  in. 
to  6  in.  X  10  in.,  girders  from  6  in,  x  8  in.  to  8  in.  x  10  in.,  and 
floor  joists  from  2  in.  x  8  in.  to  3  in.  x  12  in.  generally  16  in.  on 
centers.  Wall  studding  of  outside  frame  and  bearing  partitions  will 
usually  be  2  in.   x  4  in.  -  16  in.  on   centers.     Studding  of  clos- 


255 


2S  ESTIMATING 


cts  and  light  walls  will  usually  be  2  in.  x  3  in.,  plates  4  in.  x  4  in.  and 
4  in.  X  0  in.,  sometimes  two  2  in.  x  4  in.  doubled,  rafters  from  2  in.  x 
0  in.  to  2  in.  x  12  in.  and  18  in.  to  24  in.  on  centers. 

In  taking  off  the  frame,  the  sills  and  plates  will  of  course  be 
measured  by  the  linear  feet  in  the  outside  wall.  The  position  of  the 
main  bearing  partitions  will  usually  give  the  number  and  location  of 
the  girders.  Studs  are  doubled  at  openings  and  at  corners,  and 
fireplaces  and  stair  openings  will  call  for  timbers  of  a  large  size,  say 
from  6  in.  to  S  in.  Avidth.  • 

Assuming  that  the  joists  are  16  in.  on  centers,  the  number  of 
joists  on  a  floor  will  be  given  by  taking  ^  of  the  length  of  the  building 
in  feet,  and  adding  one  joist.  The  number  of  studs  in  the  outside 
frame  at  16  in.  on  centers  may  be  found  by  taking  j  of  the  number  of 
lineal  feet  in  the  outside  of  the  building,  adding  one  stud  for  each 
corner,  and  one  for  each  door  and  window.  To  this  must  be  added 
any  gables  or  bay  windows  or  other  projections.  Three  quarters  of 
the  number  of  lineal  feet  of  partitions  will  give  the  number  of  studs 
in  the  inside  frame  at  16  in.  on  centers.  This  allows  for  doubling 
of  studs  at  openings  and  corners. 

For  the  number  of  rafters  take  the  length  of  the  building  divided 
by  the  distance  of  the  rafters  apart  and  add  1,  this  gives  the  number 
of  pairs  of  rafters  if  a  plain  gable  roof,  while  the  number  of  rafters 
in  a  hip  roof  can  be  found  by  dividing  the  whole  distance  around  the 
building  by  the  distance  apart.  • 

Cost  of"  Frame.  Spruce  lumber  is  generally  used  for  framing, 
but  Georgia  pine  must  sometimes  be  used  for  large  girders. 

The  cost  of  spruce  lumber  is  from  $26.00  to  $28.00  per  M., 
iox  sizes  9  in.  and  under;  .$30.00  for  10  in.  stock,  with  a  corresponding 
increase  for  large  sizes.  Hard  pine  lumber,  12  in.  and  under,  will 
cost  $35.00  per  M.;  14  in.  sizes  $40.00;  16  in.  sizes  $50.00,  and  so  on. 
Hard  pine  from  the  South  by  .shipload  will  cost  about  $5  00  less  per  M. 

The  labor  of  framing  sills,  girders,  etc.,  will  cost  about  $10.00  per 
M. ;  plates,  rafters,  etc.  $12.00.  From  this  we  estimate  that  a  section  of 
sill  30  ft.  long,  containing  00  ft.  B.  M.  will  cost  as  follows: 

Stock,  00  ft.  B.  M.  of  6  in.  x  6  in.  spruce  at  $26.00  per  M.   $2 .  34 
Labor  of  f rami ng  at  $10. 00  per  M.  .90 

$3.24 


256 


ESTIMATING  29 


Dividing  this  by  30,  the  length  in  feet,  we  get  lOyij-  cents,  or 
about  11  cents  a  running  foot.  In  this  same  way  the  posts,  girts,  and 
other  special  timbers  may  be  figured. 

Floors.     Having  disposed  of  the  large  timbers  separately  we  can 
now  take  up  the  floors  by  the  square  of  100  feet.     An  analysis  of  this 
gives  us  a  result  as  follows: 
Cost  of  a  Square  of  Flooring: 

Joists  2  in.  X  9  in.,  16  in.  on  centers,  112t2-  ft. 

V  B.  M.  at  $26.00 

Labor,  per  square  of  100  sq.  ft. 

Nails 

Bridging 

Under  floor,  100  ft.  Hemlock  at  .$24.00 

Waste  ^  of  stock 

Labor 

Nails,  5  lbs.  at  3  cents  per  lb. 

Strapping  for  ceiling  1  in.  x  2  in.,  10  in.  on  centers 

Nails 

Labor 

Upper  floor,  100  ft.  of  Spruce  at  .$40.00 

Waste 

Labor 

Nails 

Paper,  labor,  and  stock 

Total  per  square  $17.82 

In  the  same  way  we  may  estimate  the  cost  of  the  walls  as  follows : 
Outside  Walls,   boarded: 

Studding  2  in.  x  4  in.,  16  in.  on  centers, 

50  ft.  B.M.  at  $26.00 
Waste  ^  stock 
Nails 

Labor,  per  square,  studding 
Beads  and  grovmds 
Boarding,  100  ft.  hemlock  at  $24.00 
Waste  I  stock 

Labor  per  square,  boarding 
Nails 

Total  cost  per  square  $  7 .  63 


$2.92 

1.50 

.10 

.50 

2.40 

.80 

.75 

.15 

.40 

.10 

1.00 

4.00 

-1.30 

1.50 

.15 

.25 

$ 

1 

.30 
.43 
.25 

1 

.50 

.25 

2 

.40 
.60 
.75 
.15 

257 


30  ESTIMATING 


Shingling  the  outside  walls  will  cost* 

Shingles,  850  at  $4.25  S3. 61 

Paper  and  laying  •  50 

Nails  -25 

Labor  on  shingling  per  square  2.18 

Total  cost  of  shingling  $6.54 

Roofing  with  2  in.  x  6  in.  rafters  spaced  20  in.  on  centers  will  cost: 


2  in.  X  6  in. 

rafters  20  in.  on 

centers  at  $26.00 

$1.56 

Waste  i 

.39 

Labor 

2.00 

Nails 

.10 

Boarding 

2.40 

Waste 

.60 

Labor 

1.00 

Nails 

30st  per 

square 

.15 

Total  ( 

$8.20 

Inside  studding  ready  for  lathing  will  cost: 

Studs,  2  in.  X  4  in.,  16  in.  on  centers,  50  ft.  B.  M.  at  $26.  $1 .  30 

Waste  I  stock  -^^5 

Nails  15 

Labor,  per  square  1  •  50 

Beads  and  grounds  _^    -40 

Total  cost  per  square  $4.00 

Windows  of  average  size  in  place.w'.U  cost  approximately: 
Window  frame 
Sashes  3  ft.  x  5  ft. 
Blinds 

Blind  fastenings 

Weight,  30  lbs.  at  1 }  cents  per  lb. 
Sash  cord,  20  ft.  at  1  cent  per  ft. 
Sash  fast 

Inside  casings,  20  ft.  at  3-2  cents  per  ft. 
Stop  beads,  16  ft.  at  1|  cents  per  ft. 
I^abor,  8  hours  at  41  cents  per  hour 

Total  cost  of  window  in  place  $9.19 


$1.20 

1.75 

1.00 

.15 

.38 

.20 

.25 

.70 

.28 

3.28 

258 


ESTBIATIXG 


31 


Inside  doors  of  average  size  will  cost,  complete: 

Door  2  ft.  S  in.  x  G  ft.  S  in.  x  1  \  in.  pine,  to  paint 

Frame 

Casings 

Tlireshold 

Nails 

Hardware 

Labor,  8  hours  at  41  cents 

Total  cost  of  door  in  place 


$2 

.40 

1 

.00 

1 

.33 

.15 

.05 

1 

.25 

3 

.28 

S9.46 


Rift  hard  pine  upper  floors  will  cost,  per  squai-e  of  100  square  feet : 
Rift  hard  pine  flooring,  100  ft.  B.  M.  at  865.00  S  6.50 

Waste  and  matching  ^  of  stock 
Labor 

Nails,  5  lbs.  at  3  cents  per  lb. 
Paper 

Total  cost  of  floor  per  square  $11 .06 


2.16 

2.00 

.15 

.25 


Approximate  cost  per  square  ft. 
Finishing  with  shellac  and  wax 

Total  per  square  foot  finished 


11  cents 
3  cents 

14  cents 


Quartered  oak  floor,  per  square  ft. 
Finishing  with  shellac 

Total  cost  per  square  foot 


25  cents 
4  cents 

29  cents 


A  common  front  door  will  cost : 

Door  3  ft.  4  in.  x  7  ft.  0  in.  x  If  in. 

Frame 

Plate  glass 

Casings,  20  -ft.  at  4  cents 

Hinges 

Lock  and  knobs 

Labor 

Total  cost  of  door 


$  5.75 
4.50 
2.50 
.80 
.68 
4.50 
4.00 

$22.73 


259 


32  ESTIMATING 


A  pair   of   sliding   doors,  fitted    complete,  will    average    about    -iis 

follows : 

2  doors  3  ft.  0  in.  x  7  ft.  0  in.  x  i;^  in.  each  S6.00 

44  feet  casings,  at  4\-  cents  1 .98 

40  feet  grounds,  at  1  cent  .  40 

40  feet  stop  beads,  at  2  cents  .  80 

Astragal-  1.00 

Chafing  strip  .20 

Lock  4.50 

Hangers  and  track  4 .  50 

Sheathing  pocket,  84  ft.  at  40  cents  3 .  36 

Labor,  40  hours  at  41  cents  16.40 

Total  cost  of  doors  $39 .  14 

These  are  some  of  the  principal  parts  of  a  hou.se  analyzed 
and  will  serve  to  show  how  the  cost  of  any  portion  may  be  obtained 
by  dividing  it  into  parts  and  pricing  each  portion  by  itself. 

Following  are  some  miscellaneous  details  of  carpenter  work: 
Two  carpenters  working  in  pairs  can  put  up  in  a  day  about 
300  ft.  B.  M.  of  studding. 
300  ft.  B.  M.  of  rafters. 
600  ft.  B.  M.  of  floor  joist. 
800  ft.  B.  M.  of  wall  or  roof  boarding. 
600  ft.  B.  JNI.  of  matched  boarding. 
500  ft.  B.  M.  of  diagonal  matched  boarding. 

MISCELLANEOUS  ITEMS 

CELLAR    WINDOW 


Frame 

$1.50 

Sash 

1.20 

Hardware 

.15 

Labor 

.50 

$3 .  35 

CELLAR     DOORS 

Stock  door,  2  ft.  8  in.  x  6  ft.  8  in.  x  1  .\  in. 

$2.25 

Frame 

1.00 

Finish,  30  ft.  4^  in.  finish 

1.62 

260 


ESTLAIATIXG  33 


Threshold 
Hardware 
Labor 


Paper  on  walls  under  clapboards  or  shingles  per  square: 
Paper 
Laying 


$0.15 

.85 

3.00 

8.87 

.10.20 

.05 

$0.25 


Inside  Finish.     Inside   finish    in   white   wood   or  cypress,   cost 
in  place: 

8  in.  base  board  with  2  in.  moulding,  per  running  ft.  .$0.12 

4  ft.  wainscot  of  narrow  sheathing,  per  running  ft.  .  40 

Plain  wall  sheathing,  per  square  foot  .05 

3^  in.  cap  for  wainscot  .06 

2  in.  picture  moulding  .03 
4  in.  chair  rail  .07 

3  ft.  panelled  dado,  per  sq.  ft.  .35 
1  case  of  3  drawers  complete  8 .  00 

Finishing  Stock.  White  wood  or  cypress  stock  which  has 
been  moulded  will  cost  one  cent  for  every  square  inch  of  section 
a  foot  long,  less  a  trade  discount,  which  at  present  is  30  per  cent 
off,  so  that  a  5  in.  casing  will  cost  5  cents  per  foot  less  30  per  cent, 
or  3J  cts.  per  foot. 

Casings,  5  in. 

Base,  8  in. 

Plinth  blocks,  5  in.  x  8  in.  x  If  in. 

Corner  blocks  5  in.  x  5  in.  x  1^  in. 

Mouldings  y'g-  cent  per  sq.  in.  of  section 

Stock  pattern  stair  rail  2^-  in.  x  2f  in.,  per  foot 

Balusters,  If  each 

Newels,  5  in.  stock  pattern 

Newels,  6  in.  stock  pattern 

Plate  rail  and  picture  moulding  per  foot 

Picture  moulding  per  foot 

Stock  drawer  case,    3  drawers 

Panelled  draw  case,  5  drawers 


$0.03^ 

.05^ 

.05 

.05 

.17 

.09 

5.00 

6.00 

.09 

on  to  .03 

3.50 

13.00 

261 


34 


ESTIMATING 


Inside  Doors  five  cross  panels  in  pine  to  paint 

2  ft.  8    in.  X  G  ft.  S    in.  x  IJ  in.  $2.40 

2  ft.  10  in.  X  0  ft.   lOin.  xlJ.  in.  2.50 


3  ft.  0    in.  x7  ft.   0    in.  x  1',  in. 


2.80 


Window  Frames 
2.V  ft.  X  4^  ft. 
3  ft.  X  5  ft. 


UP 


q-T 


$1 .  10 
1.20 
STAIRS 

Tlu"  trade  of  .stair-building,  while  a  part  of  the  general  work 
of  joincrv,  is  usually  taken  up  as  a  separate  trade  and  is  done  by 
men  who  do  nothing  else.  For  this  reason  it  is  better,  if  possible, 
to  have  the  stairs  figured  and  built  by  a  regular  stair-builder,  who 
will  have  the  special  tools,  moulds,  and  stock  necessar}-  for  this  branch 
of  carpenter  work. 

There  are  usually  in  every  house,  two  sets  of  stairs,  one  in  the 
front  part  of  the  house  and  one  in  the  back  part.  Sometimes  the 
stairs  are  so  arranged  as  to  land  together  in  the  second  story,  but 
divide  somewhere  in  their  height  upon  a  common  landing,  one 
part,  the  more  ample  and  elaborate,  running  from  the  front  hall, 

and  the  other  from  the  back  hall  or  kitchen. 
This  is  called  a  combination  staircase  and 
is  often  an  economical  solution  of  the 
problem  of  front  and  back  stairs.  See 
Fig.  14. 

When. two  separate  stairca.ses  are  put 
in,  each  will  have  a  distinct  character, 
and  it  is  this  condition  that  we  shall 
consider. 

Front  Stairs.  The  front  stairs  of  ordi- 
nary width  and  elaboration,  say  from  3  ft. 
to  4  ft.  wide  with  tvu'ned  balusters  and 
moulded  rails  and  po.sts,  in  white  wood  or 
North  Carolina  pine,  may  be  approximated 
at  S3.50  to  S4.50  per  step,  complete.  This  is  on  the  basis 
$1.50  per  .step  for  labor,  the  remainder  for  the  stock.  Panelling 
in  connection  with  the  stairs  should  be  figured  at  $.40  to  $.50  per 
sq.  ft.  of  which  one-half  will  be  labor  and  the  other  half  the  stock. 
For  ash  add  50  per  cent,  for  oak  75  per  cent. 


UP 


Ky 


o= 


Fig.  U.    Combination  Staircase. 


26;i 


ESTniATIXG 


35 


Winding  steps  will  cost  about  double  the  price  of  straight  steps 
for  material,  but  the  labor  will  be  increased  only  about  50  per  cent. 
This  price  will  allow  of  hard  pine  treads  and  plain  moulded  rail 
with  IV  in.  turned  balusters,  two  to  a  tread. 

Xo  more  definite  data  can  be  given  as  to  front  stairs,  as  there 
is  such  a  wide  variation  in  design  and  finish,  and  such  a  wide  range 
in   selection  of  posts,   rails,   and   balusters. 

In  general  a  good  moulded  and  panelled  newel  may  be "  had 
for  So.OO  to  SS.OO,  landing  posts  $3.00  to  S4.00,  rail  15  to  18  cents 
per  lineal  foot,  balusters  9  to  12  cents  each.  Balusters 
turned  in  colonial  pattern  with  an  upper  shaft,  a 
square,  and  an  urn-shaped  turning  at  the  base,  will 
cost,  turned  to  detail,  about  18  cents;  if  twisted, 
add  30  cents.     See  Fig.  15. 

These  prices  are  for  open  string  stairs,  if 
brackets  are  used  on  the  outside  stringer,  it  will  add 
12  to  15  cents  per  step. 

Back  Stairs.  Common  box  stairs,  for  general 
use  in  the  back  and  attic  portions  of  a  house,  will 
cost  about  $1.60  per  step,  this  includes  85  cents 
for  stock  and  75  cents  for  labor.  Winders  will 
be  used  more  frequently  here  than  in  front  stairs  and 
will  cost  about  double  the  price  of  a  straight  step. 
Open  cellar  stairs  of  plank  with  no  risers  will  cost 
about  65  cents  per  step,  giving  20  cents  for  labor 
and  45  cents  for  stock. 

Summary.  From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  found  that  a  flight 
of  front  stairs  in  white  wood  will  cost,  at  the  average  run  of  16  steps, 
about  $64.00;  and  the  same  in  ash  $96.00;  in  oak  $112.00.  This 
is  a  fair  price  for  good  plain  work  and  will  give  a  satisfactory  result. 

The  back  stairs  at  15  steps  would  cost  $24.00  and  the  cellar 
stairs  $7.80.  Under  conditions  where  much  of  the  handrailing 
could  be  done  away  with,  the  prices  could  be  reduced  considerably. 

DAY'S  WORK 

A  carpenter  in  one  day  can  do  any  one  of  the  following  items: 
400  running  feet  of  plaster  grounds 
40  pairs  of  bridging 
1  window,  complete,  frame,  sash,  and  fittings 


Fig.  15.   Balusters 

iu  Colonial 

Pattern. 


263 


36  ESTD.TATIXG 


1  door,  setting  frame,  hanging,  casing,  and  fitting  with  hardware 

Casing  windows,  4  per  thiv 

Hanging  and  fitting  blinds,  10  pairs  per  day 

Hanging  and  fitting  doors,  5  per  day 

Casing  doors,  5  per  day 

Cost  of  labor  per  square  of  100  feet: 

Framing  of  floors,  per  square  $1 .  50 

Framing  of  walls  1 .  50 

Framing  of  plain  roofs                               "  1 .  50 

Framing  of  hip  and  va.ley  roofs  2 .  00 

Heavy  framing  1 .  20 

Bo.irding  walls  .75 

Boarding  walls  with  matched  boards  1.00 

Boarding  walls  diagonally  1 .  00 

Boarding  roofs  1 .  00 

Laying  rough  floor  .  75 

Laying  rough  floor  diagonally  1.00 

Bridging  floors  .50 

Furring  brick  walls  12  in.  on  centers  1 .50 

Furring  brick  walls  16  in.  on  centers  1.00 

Laying  spruce  upper  floor,  6  in.  stock  1 .  50 

Laying  spruce  upper  floor,  4  in.  stock  2 .  00 

Laving  hardwood  floors,  21  in.  stock  2.50 

Shingling  walls  and  roofs  2.18 

Clapboarding  walls  2. 18 

Papering  walls  under  shingle  or  clapboards  .25 

Work  by  the  piece;  labor: 

]\Liking  window  frames  $1 .  25 

^Making  door  frames  1  00 

Door  frame  with  transom  1 .  50 

Setting  window  frames,  each  .  30 

Setting  window  frames  in  brickwork,  each  .50 

Hanging  blinds,  per  pair  .32 

Fitting  and  hanging  sashes  per  pair  .50 

Hanging  transoms  .40 

Casing  windows  .80 


264 


ESTLMATIXG  37 


Large  size  windows  $1 .50 

Attic  and  cellar  windows  .75 

Casing  door  optMiing,  one  side  .32 

Casing  door  opening,  both  sides    •  .65 

Fitting,  hanging,  and  trimming  door  .65 

Fitting,  hanging,  and  trimming  outside  door  1 .00 

Pair  of  sHding  doors,  double  13 .00 

Work  in  common  closet  1 .  50 

Exterior  Finish.  The  exterior  finish  of  a  house  will  consist, 
in  the  main,  of  the  water  tal)le  at  the  bottom,  the  belt  midwav.  and 
the  cornice  at  the  top. 

Prices  of  labor  per  lineal  foot: 

Water  table,  3  members  at  3  cents  SO. 09 

Corner  boards  .03 

Bek  .08 

Cornice,  3  to  6  cents  each  member,  or  per  ft.  .  50 

Gable  finish,  lineal  foot  .60 

Piazzas  and  Porches.  An  ordinary  piazza  will  cost,  complete, 
about  75  cents  a  square  foot,  making  for  an  8  ft.  piazza  a  cost  of 
80.00  per  running  foot. 

Shingled  piazza  columns  each: 

28  ft.  boards      at  2    cents  SO. 56 

11  ft.  studding  at  2^  cents  .28 

1  bunch  shingles  1 .  00 

Nails                                                             ■  .13 

Labor  4 . 00 


So.  94 


Square  cased  columns  8  in.  x  8  in.  will  cost,  each: 

Stock  SI. 50 

LabDr  1 .  50 

Erecting  .50 

S3. 50 


265 


38  ESTIMATING 


A  simple  balustrade  of  straight  square  balusters   1^   in.   will  cost 

j)er  running  foot: 

Top  rail  3  in,  X  4  in.  SO.  12 

Bottom  rail  2  ft.  x  4  in.  .OS 

Balusters,  four  to  a  foot  .  12 

Labor  •  32 


$0.64 


Piazza  ceiling  per  .sfjuare; 
Sheathing 
Waste 
Furring 
Nails 
Labor 


S4.00 

1.25 

1.50 

.25 

1.50 

;.50 


Piazza  Finish: 

Stock  pattern,  5  in.  turned  columns       8  ft.  long  $  2.00 

Stock  pattern,  6  in.  turned  columns       8  ft.  long  2.75 

.  Stock  pattern,  8    in.  Colonial  columns  9  ft.  long  3.50 

Stock  pattern,  10  in.  Colonial  columns  0  ft.  long  5.50 

8    in.  Doric  Column  from  detail            9  ft.  long  6.50 

10  in.  Doric  Column  from  detail            9  ft.  long  8.50 

10  in.  Fluted  Column  from  detail     .      9  ft.  long  15.00 

Short  Posts,  5  in.  x  5  in.  x  4  ft.  0  in.  .  1 .00 

Short  Posts,  6  in.  x  6  in.  x  4  ft.  0  in.  1 .  50 

Piazza  balusters  IJ  in.,  14  in.  to  16  in.  long,  .06  to  .10 

Piazza  rail            1|  x  3|  in.  per  ft.  .06 

Piazza  rail            2^  x  3^  in.  per  ft.  .07 

Tin  roof  per  square                                              10.00  to  12.00 

Conductors: 

15  ft.  pipe  at  15 cents  12.25 

Gooseneck  and  labor  •  65 

Putting  up  .  50 

$3.40 


266 


HOUSE  IN  URBANA,  ILL. 

White  &  Temple,  Architects,  University  of  Illinois 

Walls  and  Roof  Shingled.     Cost,  $5.00045.500.     View  Taken  from  Southwest. 

For  Interiors,  See  Page  203. 


:^*». 


3CCOMD  rl-OOR  PI-An 


rtBSi  n-ooBPi.iArt 


PLANS  OF  HOUSE  IN  URBANA.  ILL. 


ESTDIATIXG  39 


HARDWARE 

The  best  way  to  get  at  the  cost  of  hardware  is  to  get  a  schedule 
and  price  for  each  job  from  the  dealer.  The  price  of  hardware 
is  constantly  changing.  Prices  are  given  here  for  a  few  staple  articles 
of  ordinary  value. 

Nails  per  cwt. 

Front  door  set      (bronze  metal) 

Vestibule  dporset 

Inside  door  set 

Store  door  set 

Single  sliding  door  set 

Double  sliding  door 

Double  acting  floor  hinge  per  pair 

Double  acting  spring  hinge     " 

Window  fixture,  weights,  etc. 

Sash  fast  each 

Transom  fixture 

Cupboard  door  set 

Folding  door  bolts 

Flush  bolts  per  pair 

Butts,  small  size  per  pair 

Butts,  ordinary  size,  per  pair 

Double  coat  and  hat  hooks,  per  dozen 

Screws,  per  gross,  bronze 

Single  sliding  door  hanger 

Double  sliding  door  hanger 

NAILS 

Xails  are  priced  from  a  base  price  per  hundred  weight  adopted 
by  the  manufacturers,  which  includes  certain  sizes  of  the  more 
common  kinds.  From  this  base  the  different  kinds  of  nails  are 
priced  by  means  of  extras,  as  agreed  upon.  The  present  base 
includes  common,  fence,  and  sheathing  nails  in  sizes  from  20  penny 
to  60  penny. 

FoUowinsr  is  a  schedule  of  all  kinds  of  cut  and  wire  nails  in 
general  use  and  the  extra  price  of  each  kind  per  cwt.  above  the 
base,  which  is  §2.50  per  cwt.,  for  cut  nails  and  $2.45  per  cwt. 
for  wire  nails. 


S2.50 

to 

$4.00 

7.00 

to 

10.00 

6.00 

to 

8.00 

1.00 

to 

1.50 

6.00 

to 

10.00 

1.50 

to 

2.00 

2.00 

to 

3.00 

3.50 

up 

2.00 

up 

1.10 

up 

.25  to   .35 

.30  to   .50 

.60 

1.25 

to 

3.00 

1.50 

.25 

.30 

to 

.40 

en            2.50 

.85 

2.50  to  3.75 

3.50  to  5.50 

267 


40  ESTIMATING 


National   List  of  Extras  per  cwt.  for  Cut  Nails  in   Fair  Assortment. 

Adopted  Dec.   1,   1896 


Common,  Fence 

,  and  Sheath 

ing 

Fine  Fini.sliing 

Extras 

Base  20d  to  60d 

$2.50* 

lOd  and  larger 

$0.25 

**  Variable.    July,  1907 

,  12.65.) 

- 

8d  and  9d 

.35 

Ex 

tras 

6d  and  7d 

.45 

lOd  to     IGd 

$0.05 

4d  and  5d 

.65 

Sdand    9d 

.10 

6d  and    7d 

.20 

Barrel,  Roofin< 

y,  and 

Cottage 

4d  and    5d 

.30 

I2-  inch 

$0.30 

3M 

.40 

If  inch 

.40 

3d 

.45 

Ij  inch 

.50 

3d  fine 

.65 

1^  inch 

.60 

2d 

.70 

1    inch 
1  inch 

.70 

.85 

Spikes,  all  sizes 

.10 

f  inch 

1.00 

Casing,  Box, 

and  Floor 

Clir 

ich 

lOd  and  larger 

$0 

.15 

3  in.  and  larger 

$0.45 

Sd'and  9d 

.25 

2|     and  2h  in. 

.55 

6d  and  7d 

.35 

21    and  2    in. 

.65 

4d  and  5d 

.50 

If     and  1 J  in. 

.75 

3d' 

.70 

H  in. 

.95 

2d 

1 

.00 

1    in..    • 

1.15 

10  cents  for  each  V 

keg 

Slating 

6d 

$0.40 

4d  Swedes  Genuine 

$1.30 

4d  and  5d 

.50 

4d  Swedes  Common 

.80 

3d 

.75 

2d 

1 

.00 

Galvanizing 

2h  cts.  per  lb. 

Tinning 

3    c 

■ts.  per  lb. 

Size             2d 

3d 

3id 

4d 

5d      6d       7d 

8d 

9d       lOd 

Length         1 

u 

If 

U 

1|       2       2i 

2^ 

2J       3 

Size              12d 

20d 

30(1             40d 

50d 

60d 

Length          3^ 

4- 

4^                 5 

5h 

6 

28t 


ESTDIATIXG 


41 


WIRE    NAILS 
Adopted  Dec.  1,  1896. 

Common,  Fence,  and  Flooring        Smooth  Finishing  Nails 


Base  20d  to  60d 

$2.45* 

lOd  and  larger 

*  (.Variable.    July,  1907,  $2.55.) 

8d  and  9d 

Extras 

6d  and  7d 

lOd  to      IGd 

$0.05 

4d  and  5d 

8d  and  9d 

.10 

3d 

6d  and  7d 

.20 

2d 

4d  and  5d 

.30 

3id 

.40 

3d 

.45 

Be 

3d  fine 

.50 

1  in. 

2d 

.70 

I  in. 

Barbed  Common  and   Barbed 

Car  Nails 
15c.  advance  over  common 


2d 

3d 

4d  and  5d 

6d 


Slating 


SO.  SO 
.60 
.40 
.30 


Casing  and  Smooth  Box 


lOd  and  larger 

8d  and  9d 

6d  and  7d 

4d  and  5d 

3d 

2d 

$0.15 
.25 
.35 
.50 
.70 
1.00 


in. 


in. 


IJin. 
If  in. 
Uin. 


Clinch  Nails 


2d 

3d 

4d  and  5d 

6d  and  7d 

8d  and  9d 

lOd    . 

12d  and  16d 

20d 


Wire  Spikes 


All 


.sizes 


Extras 
$0.25 
.35 
.45 
.65 
.85 
1.15 


$1.00 
.85 
.70 
.60 
.50 
.40 
.30 


$1.05 
.85 
.65 
.55 
.45 


,35 


$0.10 


Barbed  box,  15  cts.  advance  over  smooth 

MISCELLANEOUS    DATA 

Broken  stone  filling  cu.  yd.  $  2.50 

Cesspool  6  ft.  diam.  and  8  ft.  deep,  8  in.  brick  60.00 

Blind  drains  per  lineal  ft.  .12 


26S 


42  ESTniATING 


Earthen  drains  4jn.  diam.  per  foot  $       .20 

Arch  brick  laid  in  wall  per  M.  100 .  00 

Marble  mosaic  per  sq.  ft.  .  75 

Marble  threshold,  exterior  5 .  00 

Marble  base  per  foot  .  50 

Granolithic  per  sq.  ft.  .  25 

Steel  beams  per  lb.  .03 

Cast  iron  per  lb.  .  02 
Copper  skylights  per  sq.  ft,  heavy                       1 .  75  to  2 .  50 

Plastering  2  coats  on  wire  lath  .  05 

Wooden  balustrade  per  ft.  1 .  50 

Outside  blinds  for  a  house  will  average  per  pair  .85 
Inside  doors,  5  cross  panels,  pine  to  paint,  average        3.25 

Store  sash  If  in.  per  lineal  foot  .30 

Storm  sash  for  house  will  average  1.55 

Outside  door  frame  with  transom  3 .  50 

Inside  door  frames  will  average  1.10 

Same  with  transoms  1  •  85 

Factory  window  complete  4  ft.  0  in.  X  8  ft.  0  in.  13 .  00 

Framing  heavy  lumber  per  jNI.  1 2 .  00 

Planing  lumber  per  M.                    .  2 .  00 

Laying  plank  floors  per  M.  9  •  00 

Common  bricks  per  M.  9 .  00 

Common  bricks  laid  in  wall  per  M.  20 .  00 

Concrete  foundations  percu.  yd.  7.25 

Shingling  on  roof  per  square  C.54 

Slating                                                 .  11-80 

Tar  and  gravel  roof  per  square  0 .  00 

Tin  rpofing  per  square,  average  H  -^^ 

ROOFING 

Description.  Many  kinds  of  material  are  used  for  covering 
roofs,  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  work,  the  pitch  of  the  roof, 
the  desired  appearance,  and  the  availability  of  material. 

Shingles.  The  roof  covering  of  an  ordinaiy  wooden  house  is 
generally  of  shingles.  These  are  either  shaved  or  sawed,  but  sawed 
shingles  are  generally  u.sed.  Sawed  shingles  come  in  bundles  of  250,  or 
four  bundles  to  the  thousand.     These  quantities  are  based  on  a  width 


270 


ESTIMATING 


43 


of  4  in.  to  each  shingle  so  that  if  they  are  wider  they  will  be  numerically 
less  and  consequently,  if  narrower,  there  will  be  more  in  number. 
Common  shingles  are  16  in.  to  18  inches  in  length. 

.Measuring.  In  measuring  for  shingles  the  quantities  are  u.sually 
taken  by  the  square;  equal  to  100  sq.  ft.,  and  the  number  of  shingles 
required  will  depend  upon  the  lap  or  exposure  which  is  given  to  the 
shingles.  On  roofs  the  exposed  length  is  usually  4^  inches,  and  on 
walls  5  or  6  inches  is  the  usual  exposure,  although  m  the  carrying 
out  of  special  designs  a  greater  or  less  e\-posure  may  be  given. 

Quantities.  The  covering  capacity  of  1000  shingles  at  various 
exposures  is  as  follows: 


4  inches  to  the  weather 
4i  inches  to  the  weather 

5  inches  to  the  weather 

6  inches  to  the  weather 

7  inches  to  the  weather 

8  inches  to  the  weather 


111  sq.ft.  =  900  per  square 
125  sq.ft.  =  800  per  square 
139  sq.  ft.  =  720  per  square 
167  sq.ft.  =  600  per  square 
194  sq.  ft.  =  514  per  square 
222  sq.  ft.  =  450  per  square 


Cost.  Sawed  cedar  shingles  of  best  quality  marked  "Extra" 
will  cost  from  S4.00  to  S5.00  per  thousand,  and  clear  shingles,  that  is, 
having  the  exposed  lower  third  of  clear  stock,  will  cost  S3.50  to  84.00 
per  thousand,  and  it  will  require  5  pounds  of  4  penny  nails.  These 
will  cost  3  cents  a  pound  if  plain,  or  5  cents,  galvanized. 

A  carpenter  in  one  day  of  8 
hours  will  lay  1500  shmgles  on 
plain  work  or  1000  if  surface  is 
much  cut  up.  This  will  cost  at 
S3.20  per  day  from  S2.14  to  S3.00. 
In  estimating  shingUng  an 
allowance  will  be  necessary-  for 
waste;  this  should  be  about  5  per 
cent  on  plain  roofs  and  8  to  10 
per  cent  on  roofs  with  many  hips, 
valleys,  or  dormers. 

Slating.     Slates  are  made  in 

different  sizes  from  6  x  12  up  to 

16x34  and  larger  sizes  for  special 

They  are  laid  with  reference  to  head-cover  rather  than  ex- 


Fig.  16.    Slating. 


work. 


posure,  that  is:  the  lap  of  cover  of  each  course  by  the  second  above 


271 


44  ESTDIATIXG 


it,  gives  the  gauge  to  which  slates  should  be  laid,  Fig.  16;  this  lap  is 
usually  3  inches,  so  that  the  exposed  length  of  any  slate  may  be 
found  by  subtracting  this  lap  from  the  length  of  the  slate  and  dividing 
by  2.  This  exposure  multiplied  by  the  width  of  the  slate  gives  the 
exposed  area  of  the  slate,  and  the  number  of  slates  in  a  given  area 
may  be  found  by  dividing  the  area  in  square  inches  by,  the  exposed 
area  of  the  slate. 

Example.  How  many  slates  will  be  required  per  square  to  cover 
a  roof  if  8-in.  x  14-in.  slates  are  used? 

(14  in. -3  in.)  14400  sq.  in. 

=  5>  in.  ;  8  in.  x 5^  in.  =  44  sq.  in. ; =  327. 

2  44  sq.  in. 

In  measuring  a  slate' roof  it  is  usual  to  allow  an  extra  width  of 
from  6  inches  to  a  foot,  according  to  localities,  on  hips,  valleys,  eaves, 
and  wall  cuttings,  to  allow  for  the  extra  work  involved. 

Extra  charge  should  be  made  for  towers  and  all  varied  forms 
of  roof. 

Quantities.  The  number  of  slates  required  .to  cover  a  square  of 
roofing  is  given  for  various  sizes  in  the  following  table: 

10  x  20        165 

11  X  22        138 

12  X  24        114 
14  X  28  83 

The  cost  of  slating  per  square  is  as  follows : 

Slates                                   10 in.  X  16 in.  .$  7.50 

Labor  1  day,  slater  3 .  50 

Nails  .15 

Roofing  paper  '     .50 

Labor  on  paper  .15 

$11.80 

Tin  roof  per  sq.  ft.,  average  $0.11 

Gutters  per  ft.,  galv.  iron  .90 

Galv.  iron  conductors  per  ft.,  put  up  .  18  to  .25 

Copper  roof,  plain  per  square  40.00 

Copper  roof,  with  battens  per  square  50.00 

Gravel  roofing,  5-ply  per  square  (>.00 

Zinc  flashing,  \\  cent  per  inch  of  width,  per  foot. 


6  X  12 

533 

7  X  14 

377 

8  X  16 

277 

9  X  18 

214 

272 


ESTDIATIXG  •  45 


Tiles.  Where  a  special  feature  is  to  be  made  of  the  roof,  tiles 
are  often  used  but  these  are  found  in  t,ach  a  variety  of  shapes,  sizes, 
and  prices,  that  a  roof  of  this  sort  should  always  be  given  to  a  roofer 
to  estimate. 

Metal  Roofs.  Copper  or  tin  is  generally  used  for  roofs  where  a 
metal  covering  is  desired.  Copper  roofs,  if  steep  enough  to  show  as 
a  feature  of  the  building,  are  usually  laid  with  ribs  over  battens.  This 
makes  a  handsome  and  durable  roof  the  cost  being  not  greatly  in- 
creased. 

Copper  roofing  will  cost  from  S35.00  to  S40.00  per  square. 
Flashings  around  skylights  and  balustrades,  30  to  50  cents 
a  lineal  foot. 

For  a  cheaper  metal  roof,  tin  is  generally  used ;  this  may  be  used 
on  steep  or  flat  roofs.  Tin  for  roofing  should  be  painted  on  the  under 
side  and  carefully  soldered  on  the  top. 

Tin  roofing  will  cost  from  SIO.OO  to  S12.00  a  square. 

Composition  Roofs.  For  flat  roofs,  a  composition  of  tar  and 
paper  in  layers  finished  with  a  protective  coat  of  gravel,  is  often  used; 
the  cost  of  this  depends  upon  the  number  of  layers  of  paper  and 
"moppings"  of  tar  required,  but  a  5-ply  roof  will  give  good  service 
and  will  cost  about  S6 .  00  a  square. 

Gutters  and  Conductors.  Gutters  and  conductors  are  both 
made  of  wood  or  metal,  metal  being  preferred  in  all  cases.  For 
metal  gutters  copper  and  galvanized  iron  are  used. 

Copper  gutters  will  cost  about      §1 .25  a  lineal  foot. 

Copper  conductors  .50  to  .75  a  foot 

Goosenecks  5 .  00  to  1 0 .  00  each 

]Moulded  conductor  heads  4 .  00  to  1 0 .  00  each 

Straps  1  00  each 

Galvanized  iron  gutters  will  cost  about  90  cents  a  lineal 

foot,  and  conductors,  18  to  25  cents  a  foot  according  to  size. 

PLASTERING 

Plastering  is  measured  by  the  square  yard  and  is  usually  done 
in  2-coat  or  3-coat  work.  In  taking  off  plastering  it  is  customary' to 
deduct  only  one-half  of  the  area  of  openings  to  allow  for  the  extra 
work  of  plastering  to  the  grounds. 


273 


46  ■  ESTDIATIXG 


In  some  localities  no  openings  are  deducted  unless  more  than 
7  yards  in  area,  but  in  close  figuring  this  is  not  generally  followed. 

Narrow  strips,  such  as  chimney  breasts,  if  less  than  a  foot  wide, 
are  generally  called  a  foot.  Round  corners,  beads,  and  arrises  must 
be  taken  separately  by  the  lineal  foot. 

Raking  surfaces  require  additional  work  and  should  be  taken  at 
about  one-half  more  than  plain  work.  Circular  or  elliptical  work 
should  be  charged  at  two  prices  and  domes,  groins,  and  intersecting 
soffits,  at  three  prices.  Cornices  are  taken  by  the  square  foot  of  girth 
with  enrichments  charged  separately  by  the  lineal  foot. 

Lathing.  Lathing  is  generally  included  in  the  plasterer's  price 
although  put  up  by  a  different  set  of  men.  Lathing  is  estimated  by 
the  square  yard  or  by  the  thousand  laths,  the  price  being  $2.75  to 
$3.25  a  thousand. 

Labor.  1  wo  plasterers  requiring  one  helper  will  do  from  40  to 
50  square  yards  of  three-coat  plastering,  or  GO  to  70  square  yards  of 
two-coat  work,  in  a  day  of  8  hours,  and  1,200  to  1,500  laths  makes  a 
day's  work  for  one  lather.  100  sq.  yds.  of  lath  and  plaster  will  cost 
about  as  follows,  for  two-coat  work: 

1,500  laths  at  $4.75  per  M  $  7.12 

10  lbs.  3d.  nails  at  $3.20  per  cwt.  .  32 

Labor  on  laths  4 .  50 

10  bushels  lime  at  .  48  per  bu.  4 .  80 

G    lbs.     hair    at     .04  .24 

1  load  sand  1 .  80 

Plasterer  3  days  at  $5.00  15.00 

Helper  lir  day  sat  $3.00  4.50 

Cartage  1.00 

$39.28 

Cost  of  a  square  yard  of  two-coat  work,  $39.28  -=-  100  =  39 
to  40  cents. 

This  is  a  price  which  is  on  the  increase  and,  while  plastering  is 
done  in  the  country  towns  as  low  as  35  cents  per  yard  it  will  not  be 
safe  to  use  this  price  any  length  of  time. 


274 


ESTIMATING  47 


For  three-coat  work  we  may  take  the  following  schedule: 

Laths  and  putting  on,  as  above  $11 .  94 

13  bush,  lime  at  .  48  6 .  24  • 

81bs.  hairat  .04                   .  .32 

1^  loads  sand  at  $1 .80  2 .  70 

1  bbl.  plaster  Paris  1 .  70 

Plasterer  4  days  at  So.OO  20 .  00 

Helper  2  days  at  S3. 00  6 .  00 

Cartage  "                                  1.00 

$49.90 

Cost  of  a  sq.  yd.  of  three-coat  work,  $49.90  -^  100  =  50  cents. 

Rules.  In  some  portions  of  the  country  a  set  of  rules  has  been 
adopted  governing  the  valuing  of  plasterer's  work  which  are  in  the 
main  as  follows: 

"  First  Measure  on  all  walls  and  ceilings  the  surface  actually 
plastered,  without  deducting  any  grounds  or  any  openings  of  less 
extent  than  seven  superficial  yards. 

Second.  Returns  of  chimney-breasts,  pilasters,  and  all  strips  of 
plastering  less  than  twelve  inches  in  width,  measure  as  twelve  inches 
wide;  and  where  the  plastering  is  finished  down  to  the  base,  surbase, 
or  wainscoa^ing,  add  six  inches  to  height  of  walls. 

Third.  In  closets,  add  one-half  to  the  measurement.  Raking 
ceilings  and  soflBts  of  stairs,  add  one-half  to  the  measurement;  cir- 
cular or  elhptical  work,  charge  two  prices;  domes  or  groined  ceilings, 
three  prices. 

Fourth.  For  each  twelve  feet  of  interior  work  done  farther  from 
the  ground  than  the  first  twelve  feet,  add  five  per  cent;  for  outside 
work,  add  one  per  cent  for  each  foot  that  the  work  is  done  above  the 
first  twelve  feet." 

Stucco-work  is  generally  governed  by  the  following  rules;  viz., 
"Mouldings  less  than  one  foot  girt  are  rated  as  one  foot,  over  one 
foot,  to  be  taken  superficial.  When  work  requires  two  moulds  to 
run  same  cornice,  add  one-fifth.  For  each  internal  angle  or  mitre, 
add  one  foot  to  length  of  coi-nice,  and,  for  each  external  angle,  add 
two  feet.  All  small  sections  of  cornice  less  than  twelve  inches  Ioul'' 
measure  as  twelve  inches.  For  raking  cornices,  add  one-half;  circu- 
lar or  elliptical  work  double  price;  domes  and  groins,  three  prices. 


275 


48  ESTIMATIXG 


For  enrichments  of  all  kinds  a  special  price  must  be  charged.  The 
higher  the  work  is  above  ground,  the  liigher  the  charge  must  be; 
add  to  it  at  the  rate  of  five  per  cent  for  every  twelve  feet  above  the 
first  twelve  feet." 

PAINTING 

Painting  is  estimated  by  the  yard,  doors  and  windows  being 
taken  solid  to  make  up  for  the  extra  labor  of  cutting  in  the  sashes  and 
mouldings. 

Railings,  fences,  grilles,  and  similar  surfaces  are  taken  solid. 

A  painter  in  one  day  w'ill  cover  100  yds.  of  outside  work  one 
priming  coat,  or  80  yds.  of  the  second  coat.  Ten  pair  of  blinds  will 
make  a  day's  work. 

On  first  coat,  one  pound  of  paint  will  cover  about  4  sq.  yds.  and 
6  sq.  yds.  on  the  subsequent  coats.  One  pound  of  putty  for  stopping 
will  cover  20  yds. 

Shingle  stains  require  a  gallon  for  every  500  shingles  if  dipped 
two-thirds  in,  and  for  a  brush  coat  after  laying,  a  gallon  will  cover 
about  200  feet  of  surface,  or  1500  shingles. 

1  gallon  of  priming  color  will  cover  50  yards 

1  gallon  of  zinc  white  will  cover  50  yards         ' 

1  gallon  of  white  paint  will  cover  44  yards 

1  gallon  of  black  paint  will  cover  50  yards 

1  gallon  of  stone  color  will  cover  44  yards 

1  gallon  of  yellow  paint  will  cover  44  yards 

1  gallon  of  green  paint  will  cover  45  yards 

1  gallon  of  emerald  green  will  cover  25  yards 

1  gallon  of  bronze  green  will  cover  75  yards 

The  following  table  gives  the  comparative  covering  of  paints  by 
w^eight  on  various  surfaces. 

COVERING   OR   SPREADING    POWER   OF   TYPICAL   PAINTS* 

ON    WOOD 

First  Coat  Seconp  Coat 

Red  lead  112  252 

White  lead  221  324 


*The  figures  represent  square  feet,  covered  by  100  lbs.  of  paiut  of  the  usual  con 
Bistency,  applied  evenly  with  a  brush. 


276 


ESTBIATING 

49 

First  Coat 

Second  Coat 

Oxide  of  zinc 

378 

453 

Red  oxide 

453 

540 

Raw  linseed  oil 

756 

872 

Boiled  linseed  oil 

ON   METAL 

412 

540 

Red  lead 

477 

White  lead 

648 

Oxide  of  zinc 

1134 

Red  oxide 

870 

Raw  linseed  oil 

1417 

Boiled  linseed  oil 

ON    PLASTER 

1296 

Red  lead 

324 

White  lead  (on  sized  wall) 

362 

Oxide  of  zinc 

594 

Raw  hnseed  oil  (unsized  wall) 

55 

99 

Cost.  The  cost  of  painting  varies  under  different  conditions  but 
in  general  the  following  table  will  be  found  an  average  price: 

INSIDE  WORK 

1  coat  per  sq.  yd.  $0.12 

2  coats  per  sq.  yd.  .20 

3  coats  per  sq.  yd.  .25 

1  coat  shellac  per  sq.  yd.  .  10 

1  coat  size  and  2  coats  paint  .20 

1  coat  size  and  3  coats  paint  stipple  .30 

INSIDE   FINISH 

1  coat  liquid  filler,  1  coat  varnish  10.20 

1  coat       "      filler,  2  coats  varnish  .25 

1  coat       "     filler,  3  coats  varnish  .30 

1  coat  paste  filler,  1  coat  varnish  .25 

1  coat     "       filler,  2  coats  varnish  .30 

1  coat     "       filler,  3  coats  varnish  .35 


277 


50  ESTIMATING 


Tinting  walls  in  distemper  will  cost  15  cents  per  sq.  yd.  for  small 
amounts  and  10  cents  per  sq.  yd.  for  50  yds,  or  more.  Finishing  hard 
wood  floors  with  filler,  shellac,  and  2  coats  of  varnish  or  wax  finish 
will  cost  30  cents  per  sq.  yd. 

OUTSIDE     PAINTING 


SO.  10 

.18 

.25 

$0.28 

.35 

,50 

1  coat  new  work  per  sq.  yard 

2  coats  new  work  per  sq,  yard 

3  coats  new  work  per  sq,  yard 

SANDING 

2  coats  paint,  1  coat  sand  per  sq.  yd. 

3  coats  paint,  1  coat  sand  per  sq.  yd. 
3  coats  paint,  2  coats  sand  per  sq.  yd. 

Painting  on  brick  will  cost  12  cents  per  yard  for  the  first  coat, 
but  subse(juent  coats  will  cost  no  more  than  on  wood.  Tin  roofs  can 
be  painted  one  coat  for  5  cents  a  yard. 

1000  shingles  dipped  two-thirds  of  their  length  will  cost  $3.00  and 
a  brush  coat  in  addition  costs  50  cents.  Blinds  are  rated  at  $1 .50  per 
pair  for  an  average  size. 

HEATING 

The  heating  of  a  building  is  generally  made  the  subject  of  a 
special  contract. 

The  three  usual  methods  for  hou.se  heating  are,  the  Hot  Air 
Furnace,  the  Hot  Water  Boiler,  or  the  Steam  Boiler.  Sometimes  a 
combination  svstem  of  hot  air  and  steam,  or  hot  air  and  hot  water  is 
used. 

Estimates  of  the  cost  of  heating  should  be  obtained  from  con- 
tractors Avho  follow  this  particular  branch  of  construction. 

In  general,  for  an  ordinary  class  of  building  such  as  residences, 
apartments,  stores,  etc.,  the  heating  will  range  according  to  the  system 
used,  from  6%  to  12%  of  the  cost  of  the  building,  as  follows: 

Hot  air  furnace  6  to    7  per  cent. 

Steam  8  to  10  per  cent. 

Hot  water  10  to  12  per  cent. 


878 


ESTIMATING  51 


These  figures  are  approximate  and  the  only  reliable  way  to  obtain 
the  actual  cost  is  by  taking  off  the  items  and  figuring  each  job  by  it- 
self. 

Quantities.  The  hot  air  heating  of  an  ordinar}^  house  can 
be  approximated  closely  by  the  builder  on  the  basis  of  cubic  con- 
tents to  be  heated;  and  the  area  of  piping  and  capacity  of  the  furnace 
can  be  approximated  by  means  of  the  following  general  rules : 

To  determine  the  size  of  pipe  for  any  room,  find  the  cubic  con- 
tents of  the  room  in  cubic  feet  and  divide  this  by  25  for  rooms  on 
the  first  floor,  and  by  35  for  rooms  on  the  second  and  third  floors. 

]Make  the  cold  air  box  at  least  |  of  the  combined  area  of  pipes, 
none  of  which  should  be  smaller  than  7  inches  in  diameter. 

Example.  For  a  small  house  of  seven  rooms  the  quantities 
may  be  as  follows: 

FIRST    FLOOR 

Parlor  12x  15  x  9  ft.  high  1624  cu.  ft.  divided  by  25  =  65 

sq.  in.  or  9  in.  pipe 
Hall  8  x  20  X  9  ft.  high  1440  cu.  ft.  divided  by  25  =  58 

sq.  in.  or  9  in.  pipe 
Add  40%  for  second  storv-  hall  space  making  81  sq.  in.  =  10  in. 
pipe 
Dining  Room  14  x  15  x  9  ft.  high  1890  cu.  ft.  divided  by  25  =  76 

sq.  in.  or  10  in.  pipe 

SECOND  FLOOR 

Chamber      13  x  15  x  8h  =  1658  cu.  ft.  ^  35  =  48  sq.  in.  or  8  in.  pipe 

Chamber      11  x  12  x  8h  =--  1122  cu.  ft.  ^  35  =  32  sq.  in.  or  7  in.  pipe 

Chamber      14  x  16  x  8^  =  1904  cu.  ft.  -h  35  =  55  sq.  in.  or  8  in.  pipe 

Bath  Room    8  x  10  x  8\  -    680  cu.  ft.  ^  35  =  20  sq.  in.  or  7  in.  pipe 

Total  pipe  area : 

2-10  in.  pipes  78  sq.  in.  each  156  sq.  in, 

1  -    9  in.  pipe   64  sq.  in.  64  sq.  in. 

2  -    8  in.  pipes  50  sq.  in.  100  sq.  in. 
2  -    7  in.  pipes  38  sq.  in.  76  sq.  in. 

Total  pipe  area  396 

From  this  scale  we  can  determine  the  size  of  the  furnace  and 
the  cost  of  piping. 


279 


52 


ESTIMATING 


A  furnace  to  carry  say  400  to  500  sq.  feet  of  pipe  area  would 
cost,  set  in  place,  from  $100  to  $125.  The  labor  on  pipes,  registers, 
and  furnace  $20  to  $24. 

The  cost  of  piping  will  depend  on  the  distances  to  run  but 
the  material  can  be  estimated  as  follows: 

■  Round  tin  pipes  will  cost;  from  A.  A.  charcoal  plates, as  follows: 


Size  of  Pipe 

6" 

.09 
1'? 

7" 

.10 
.12 
.10 
.15 

8" 

.12 

.12 
.10 

.18 

9" 

■  14 
.15 
.12 
.20 

10- 

.16 
.15 
.12 
.25 

11" 

.18 
.15 
.14 
.30 

12" 

.23 

.18 
.18 
.35 

13" 

.25 

.18 
.18 
.40 

14" 

.27 
.18 
.18 
.45 

15" 

.28 
.20 
.20 
.50 

16" 

.30 
.20 
.20 
.60 

18" 

Per  P oot                    

.32 

Hot  Air  DaiUDer        

.25 

Furuace  Collars.         

10 

.25 

Tiu  Elbows 

.12 

.70 

*  REGISTERS 


Size 

6x10 

.50 
.38 
.14 

05 

7x10 

.52 
.42 
.16 
.05 

1.15 

8x10 

.52 
.44 
.17 
.06 

1.19 

8x12 

9x12 

10x14 

1.08 
.70 
.27 
.07 

2.12 

.12x15 

12x16 

14x18 

2.74 

1.50 

.38 

.10 

4.72 

16x20 

Black  Reurister 

.58 
.50 
.20 
.06 

1.34 

.64 
.63 
.23 
.07 
1.57 

1.37 
.93 
.33. 
.08 

2.71 

1.70 

1.00 

.35 

.08 

3.13 

3.75 

Slate  Stoue 

2.35 

Register  Box 

.50 

Nettiug                     

.12 

1.07 

Totals 

6.V2 

♦  July,  1906.— Add  one-third. 

Galvanized  smoke  pipe  will  cost  9c  per  lb.  and  will  weigh  per 
lineal  foot  as  follows: 


Size 
No. 

4" 

5" 

6" 

7" 

8" 

9" 

10" 

11" 

12"- 

13" 

14" 

22 

24 

If 

2i 

If 

n 

3 

'    2i 

31 
24 

3i 

21 

3 

4i 
31 

5 

3f 

5i 
3i 

5i 

4i 

GALVANIZED  ELBOWS 


Size 

4" 
1 

i'A" 

5" 

5/2" 

If 
.25 

6" 

.28 

7" 

2i 
.32 

8" 

Pouud 

u 

.23 

31 

Cost. ...'.'.'.'.'. 

.18 

.20 

.35 

Tin,  per  Sheet 


DC 

12^x17 

.05 

IX 

14    x20 

.07 

IXX 

14,  x20 

.08 

IX 

20    x23 

.12 

IX 

20    x  26 

.13 

IX 

20    x  29iV 

.16 

IX 

20    x32i 

.17 

Miscellaneous  Data 


Galvanized  sheet  iron  per  lb. 
Common  sheet  iron  per  lb. 


$0.05 
.04 


280 


ESTDIATIXG  53 


Zinc  per  lb.  SO .  10 

Wrought  iron  per  lb.  .  04 

Galvanized  piping  per  lb.  .  09 

Gahiinized  cold  air  box  per  lb.  .  09 

Galvanized  furnace  shields  per  sq.  ft.  .08 

Register  box  netting  per  sq.  ft.  .  05 

Asbestos  paper  at  1  h  lbs.  per  sq.  yd,  .  05 

Figure  cold  air  supply  f  combined  area  of  piping. 

Register  grilles  take  up  ^  of  area  of  register. 

Locate  registers  nearest  convenient  point  to  furnace,  inside 
part  of  room  preferred.  Locate  furnace  so  that  all  pipes  will  be  as 
nearly  equal  in  length  as  possible. 

Estimate  pipes  by  lineal  foot,  but  elbows  and  dampers  sepa- 
rately, also  registers  with  boxes  and  borders. 

Allow  from  SLOO  to  SL25  for  flange  connection  of  cold  air 
box  to  furnace  casing. 

Cover  all  risers  with  asbestos  paper  in  partitions. 

HOT   WATER    AND    STEAM   HEATING 

In  estimating  for  heating  with  hot  water,  all  pipes  and  fittings 
must  be  taken  off  and  listed,  all  standard  radiators  priced  by  the 
square  foot  of  radiation,  and  special  radiators  listed  separately, 
also  tanks,  valves,  hangers,  etc. 

Radiators  are  listed  in  the  trade  catalogues,  together  with  the 
number  of  square  feet  in  each  section. 

These  prices  are  subject  to  varying  discounts  which  can  be 
obtained  of  the  manufacturers. 

Radiation.  The  amount  of  radiation  necessars^  for  each  room 
depends  upon  so  many  var}4ng  conditions  that  all  rules  are  in  a 
way  approximate. 

Certain  formulae  may  be  used,  which  will  give  good  results 
in  ordinary  cases,  but  just  what  allowances  are  necessar}'  must  be 
determined  by  the  heating  engineer. 

The  same  is  true  of  making  the  estimates  of  hot  water  or  steam 
and  the  contractor  should  in  all  cases  have  the  job  figured  by  an 
expert. 

In  ordinary  cases  the  amount  of  radiation  may  be  determined 


281 


54 


ESTIMATING 


from  the  cubic  contents  of  the  rooms  to  be  heated  by  the  following 
tables  which  give  the  proportions  of  one  square  foot  of  radiating 
surface  to  the  cubic  contents  of  the  various  rooms  in  cubic  feet. 


STEAM 


One  Square  Foot  of  RadiationWill  Heat 

dwellinos, 
Cubic  Feet 

HaLI,8, 

Stores,  Etc. 
Cubic  Feet 

Churches AND 

Auditoriums, 

Cubic  Feet 

By  direct  radiation — 
Ou  first  floor 

35  to  60 
50  to  80 

75  to  100 

125  to  200 

Ou  upper  floors 

By  indirect  radiation — 
Ou  first  floor 

25  to  40 
40  to  50 

50  to  70 

80  to  135 

On  upper  floors 

HOT  WATER 


One  Square  Foot  of^R  adiation  Will  Heat 

Dwellings, 
Cubic  Feet 

Halls, 

Stores.  Etc. 

Cubic  Feet 

Churches and 

Auditorium*, 

Cubic  Feet 

By  direct  radiation — 
Ou  first  floor 

15  to  25 
25  to  40 

30  to  45 

50  to  85 

On  upper  floors 

By  indirect  radiation — 
On  first  floor 

17  to  40 
25  to  35 

45  to  65 

80  to  125 

Ou  upper  floors 

Having  determined  'the  amount  of  radiation,  piping,  and  fit- 
tings, the  labor  may  be  obtained  by  adding  about  20  per  cent  to 
the  cost  of  materials. 

PLUMBING 

So  wide  a  range  is  possible  in  the  selection  and  price  of  plumb- 
ing fixtures  that  no  very  useful  data  can  be  given  for  a  complete 
installation. 

For  instance,  in  one  house  the  price  of  a  single  bathroom,  fitted 
up  to  meet  the  fancies  and  purse  of  the  owner,  may  cost  more  than 
the  whole  plumbing  outfit  of  his  more  modest  neighbor. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  a  fact  that  the  plumbing  of  a  house  is  a  poor 
place  to  practice  economy,  as  no  part  of  the  construction  of  a  build- 
ing needs  more  careful  attention  in  execution  or  in  selection. 

In  general,  a  good  job  of  plumbing  will  cost  about  10  per  cent 
of  the  cost  of  the  building,  and  of  this  outlay  about  30  per  cent  will 
represent  the  labor. 

In  taking  off  plumbing  the  contractor  should  begin  at  tHe  sewer 


282 


HOUSE  AT  WASHINGTON,  ILL. 

Herbert  Edmund  Hewitt,  Architect,  Peoria,  IIL 

Walls  of  Cement  on  Metal  T.ath.    Roofs  Covered  with  Shingles  Stained  Green.  All  Outside 
Woodwork  Stained  Dark  Urowu.    No  Paint  on  Outside  except  on  Sash. 


Verand/v 


WW       w 


fic^T  TiooQ.  Plan 


^LcoND  liooB  Ran 


HOUSE  AT  WASHINGTON,  ILL. 

Herbert  Edmund  Hewitt,  Architect,  Peoria,  111. 

Built  In  1904.    Cost,  about  ?4. 500.    House  was  Built  for  a  Summer  House,  ba' 

Constructed  the  Same  as  if  for  All  Year-Round  Use,  and 

Provided  with  Heating  Plant. 


ESTniATlNG  55 


or  cesspool,  if  the  drains  are  included,  or,  if  not,  at  the  outer  end  of 
the  soil  pipe,  and  take  off  carefully  every  pipe  with  its  fittings,  which 
should  be  itemized  carefully  as  this  data  will  be  useful  in  getting 
at  the  amount  of  caulking,  fitting,  etc. 

Soil  Pipes.  Soil  pipes  should  be  estimated  by  the  lineal  foot, 
allowing  in  each  joint  |  of  a  pound  of  lead  for  every  inch  in  diameter 
of  the  pipe. 

List  prices  of  pipe  and  fittings  can  be  obtained  from  the  dealers, 
which  are  subject  to  discount;  these  vary  from  time  to  time,  but  the 
present  discounts  will  be  found  to  bring  the  prices  of  the  more  com- 
mon materials  about  as  follows: 

DRAINAGE 

4-in.  extra  heavy  soil  pipe  per  ft.  .$  .30 

3-in.  extra  heavy  soil  pipe  per  ft.  .22 

2-in.  extra  heavy  soil  pipe  per  ft."  .  15^ 
For  fittings  add  3-5  per  cent  to  the  cost  of  pipe. 

4-in.  running  trap  2.00 

4-in.  brass  ferrule  cleanout  .50 

4-in.  lead  bend  1 .  50 

4-in.  brass  ferrule  .50 

2-in.  brass  ferrule  .20 

Solder  per  lb.  .22 

WATER   SUPPLY 

40  gal.  galvanized  boiler  and  stand  S15.00 

1-in.  brass  pipe  per  ft.  .60 

1-in.  galvanized  pipe  per  ft.  .09 

f-in.  galvanized  pipe  per  ft.  .06 

i-in.  galvanized  pipe  per  ft.  .05 

1-in.  stop  and  waste  cock  1 .50 

|-in.  stop  and  waste  cock  .90 

^-in.  stop  and  waste  cock  .  80 

Sill  cock  1 .  00 
For  fittings,  add  30  per  cent  to  cost  of  pipes. 

WATER 

1  cu.  ft.  7.48  gallons 

1  cu.  ft.  29.92  quarts 


283 


56 


ESTIMATING 


1  cu.  ft.,  62.321  lbs.  1004  oz. 

1  cu.  yd.  1692  lbs. 

1  gal.,  231  cu.  in.  •  8J  lbs. 

1-foot  cylinder  49 . 1  lbs. 

1-inch  cylinder  .028  lbs. 

Pressure  per  sq.  in.  =  depth  in  feet  x  433. 
Each  27.72  inches  of  depth  gives  a  pressure  of  1  lb. 

to  a  square  inch. 
A  barrel  Slh  gal. 

Contents  in  cu.  ft.  x  2375  =  barrels. 
Head  of  water  =  pressure  in  lbs,  per  sq.  in.  x  2.31. 
Number  of  gallons  in  a  foot  of  pipe  =  Diam.  in. 

inches  2  x  .04. 
Supply  for  one  person  is  15  gallons  a  day. 
Actual  use  6  gallons  to  12  gallons. 
Water  34  feet  high  has  a  pressure  of  15  lbs.  per  sq. 

in.  equal  to  atmosphere. 

CAPACITY  OF  CISTERNS 
In  Qallons,  for  Each  Foot  in  Depth 


Diameter  in  Feet 

Gallons 

iDlAMETER  IN  FeET 

Gallons 

2. 

23.5 

9. 

475.87 

2.5 

36.7 

9.5 

553.67 

3. 

52.9 

10. 

587.5 

3.5 

71.96 

11. 

710.9 

4. 

94.02 

12. 

846.4 

4.5 

119. 

13. 

992.9 

5. 

146.8 

14. 

1,151.5 

5.5 

177.7 

15. 

1,321.9 

6. 

211.6 

20. 

2,350.0 

6.5 

248.22 

25. 

3,570.7 

7. 

287.84 

30. 

5,287.7 

7.5 

330.48 

35. 

7,189. 

8. 

.376. 

40. 

9,367.2 

8.5 

424.44 

45. 

11,893.2 

The  American  Standard  Rallon  contains  21!!  cnbic  inche.s,  or  S'/i  pound.s  of  pure  water. 
A  cvibic  foot  eontains  62.3  pounds  of  water,  or  7.48  frallons.  Pressure  per  square  inch  Is 
equal  to  the  depth  or  head  In  feet  multiplied  by  .433.^^Each  27.73  inches  of  depth  gives  a 
pressure  of  one  pound  to  the  square  inch. 

For  tanks  that  taper,  take  diameter  ,\  from  large  end. 

FIXTURES 

3-ft.  .soapstone  sink  complete  $30.00  to  $40.00 

14-in.  X  17-iii.  lavatory  with  marble  slab 
and  back  piece  fitted  complete  $35.00  to  $50.00 


284 


ESTIMATING  57 


Enamelled  iron  lavatory  complete  $25.00  to  S40. 00 
5-ft.  6-in.  enamelled  iron  bath  complete S60 . 00  to  $100.00 

Bath  tub  only  $25.00  to  $35.00 
Soapstone  laundry  trays  complete 

One  part  $15.00  to  $18.00 

Two  parts  $30.00  to  $35.00 

Three  parts  $45.00  to  $60.00 

List  prices  of  fittings  may  be  obtained  from  all  dealers,  subject 
to  large  discounts,  which  should  be  considered  frequently  as  they  are 
constantly  changing. 

Labor.  Having  made  a  complete  list  of  pipe,  fittings,  and  fixtures, 
the  labor  of  construction  of  an  ordinary  job  of  plumbing  will  run  from 
20  to  40  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  materials. 

GAS    FITTING 

As  in  plumbing  so  in  gas  fitting,  the  wide  range  of  selection  and 
cost  in  fixtures,  makes  it  impossible  to  give  satisfactory  data  in  regard 
to  cost. 

The  piping  only,  of  an  ordinary  house  will  cost  from  $1.75 
to  $2.00  an  outlet,  and  the  whole  outfit  should  cost  from  3  to  5  per 
cent  of  the  cost  of  the  house. 

Pipes  of  usual  size  cost  as  follows: 

l-in.  gas  pipe  per  foot  $0 .  03 

^-in.  gas  pipe  per  foot  .  04 

|-in.  gas  pipe  per  foot  .  05 

H-in.  main  .08 

Fittings  25  per  cent  of  cost  of  pipe. 

ELECTRIC    WORK 

The  original  contract  for  a  house  usually  provides  for  the  wiring 
for  electric  lighting  and  bells,  but  fixtures  are  generally  left  to  be 
provided  for  by  a  later  agreement,  as  there  is  such  a  great  latitude 
in  selection  and  cost. 

For  electric  light  wiring  one  of  two  systems  is  usually  employed : 
the  conduit  .system,  where  the  wires  are  all  run  in  pipes  or  conduits, 
and  the  knob  and  tube  system,  where  the  wires  are  run  in  the  clear 
space  between  timbers,  secured  to  porcelain  knobs,  or  passing  through 
short  tubes  of  the  same  material. 


285 


58  ESTIMATING 


In  general,  the  rough  wiring  of  a  liouse  may  be  reckoned  at  S4.00 
per  outlet  for  conduit  work,  and  S2.00  per  outlet  for  knob  and  tube 
work. 

This  is  for  every  time  the  wires  are  broufjht  to  the  surface, 
whether  for  switches,  cutouts,  or  fixtures.  Another  way  is  to  allow 
$1.50  for  each  lamp  or  switch. 

Switches,  ^^arious  kinds  of  switches  are  used,  the  two  principal 
kinds  being  the  push  button,  and  the  rotary  switch. 

These  vary  in  price  according  to  make  and  finish. 

A  good  rotary  switch  can  be  had  at  from  90  cents  to  $1.00. 

Push  button  switches  from  $1.00  to  $1.10. 

Snap  switches  from  30  to  40  cents. 

Wires  are  sold  in  coils  which  are  marked  with  the  gauge  and 
manufacturer,  and  should  bear  the  label  of  inspection  accej)table  to 
the  local  Insurance  board. 

The  cost  of  wire  will  vary  with  the  gauge  and  the  insulation  but 
for  usual  house  work  should  cost,  for  No.  14  wire,  2  cents  a  foot. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that,  in  electric  wiring,  the  larger  the 
house,  the  more  per  outlet  the  weiring  will  cost.  This  seems  contrary 
to  expectation  but  is  occasioned  by  the  smaller  percentage  of  lights  to 
length  of  wire. 

Bells.  The  number  of  call  bells  in  a  dwelling  will  vary  according 
to  the  plan  and  choice  of  the  owner. 

For  an  ordinary  house  the  number  would  range  from  six  to 
ten,  and  the  cost  should  be  from  $18.00  to  $25.00  or  about  $3.00  per 
bell. 


286 


W   -J 


Sou 

K  '^ 
U  O 
►J      . 

£  " 
w  .:^ 

o 

a    o 

2  « 

o  w 


ESTIMATING 

PART  II 


The  taking-off  of  ciuantities  and  making-up  of  an  actual  estimate, 
is  the  end  toward  which  our  efforts  are  now  directed.  This  is  done,  as 
has  been  said,  in  a  number  of  ways,  no  two  persons  arriving  at  the 
same  conchision  or  following  exactly  the  same  methods.  To  give  the 
student  a  practical  idea  of  howestimates  are  made,  M'e  shall  now  demon- 
strate the  method  of  procedure  in  an  actual  instance.  For  this  purpose, 
we  shall  take  the  case  of  the  wooden  Colonial  residence  of  which  the 
plans  and  working  drawings,  and  the  method  of  making  these,  are  fully 
described  in  the  course  on  "Architectural  Drawing,"  and  of  which  the 
details  are  also  described  to  a  certain  extent  in  the  chapters  on  "Building 
Superintendence;"  and  shall  proceed  at  once  to  take  off  the  quantities 
and  make  up  an  estimate  of  cost. 

Method.  The  usual  method  followed  is  to  take  off  the  quantities 
in  the  order  in  which  they  occur  in  the  specification  or  in  the  operation 
of  building,  beginning  with  the  Excavation  and  ending  with  the 

Painting. 

Tw^o  methods  of  procedure  are  open  to  the  Contractor,  which  he 
may  avail  himself  of  according  to  his  experience  or  confidence.  He 
may  take  off  simply  his  own  particular  branch  of  the  work,  relying  on 
each  sub-contractor  to  give  him  a  price  for  the  detailed  portions  of  the 
work;  or,  if  he  is  a  general  contractor,  he  may,  with  the  requisite 
knowledge  of  general  building  operations,  take  off  all  the  quantities, 
pricing  them  according  to  his  knowledge,  and  may  submit  his  prop- 
osition on  the  basis  of  his  own  figures.  The  latter  method  requires 
great  experience,  and  is  followed  generally  by  large  contractors, 
who  have  in  their  employ  men  whose  business  is  mainly  to  take  off 
quantities  and  make  up  estimates. 

The  following  estimate  has  been  carefully  made  up  on  the  basis 
of  the  data  given  in  Part  I  as  to  prices  of  materials  and  labor.  In 
actual  practice,  details  of  more  or  less  importance  will  vary  in  dif- 
ferent localities  and  among  different  contractors;  but  the  example 
here  given  illustrates  the  process  fully. 


fS69 


uJ 


.,2 


< 


62  ESTIMATING 


ESTIMATE 

OF 

RESIDENCE  AT  RIDGEDALE,  MO. 
FOR  GEORGE  A.  JONES,  ESQ. 


Staking-out  and  setting  batter-boards $15.00 

Water  supply  during  construction 10.00 

S25.00 

EXCAVATION 

Note. — Excavation  is  priced  by  the  cubic  yard;  and  in  this 
regard,  the  distance  to  which  the  excavated  material  must  be  carted 
will  be  an  important  consideration.  In  the  present  case,  the  material 
is  to  be  carried  only  a  short  distance,  so  that  no  unusual  conditions 
will  have  to  be  considered. 

As  before  mentioned,  it  is  usually  well  to  dig  a  cellar  at  least  a 
foot  larger  all  around  than  the  sill  line,  so  that  plenty  of  room  may  be 
afforded  to  the  mason  to  plaster  the  outside  of  the  wall.  This  should 
be  done  without  regard  to  the  specifications.  As  this  extra  excavation 
lies  entirely  outside  the  line  of  the  house,  it  may  be  well  to  take  it  off 
separately,  remembering  that  it  will  extend  down  into  the  trench 
below  the  wall,  making  about  8  feet  of  height. 

Quantities —  Cu.  Ft. 

42  ft.  0  in.  X  8  ft.  0  in.  X  1  ft.  0  in 336 

34  ft.  0  in.  X  8  ft.  0  in.  X  1  ft.  0  in 272 

10  ft.  4  in.  X  8  ft.  0  in.  X  Ift.Oin -.  .  83 

17  ft.  6  in.  X  8  ft.  0  in.  X  Ift.Oin 140 

68  ft.  0  in.  X  8  ft.  0  in.  X  1  ft.  0  in 544 

41  ft.  0  in.  X  8  ft.  0  in.  X  1  ft.  0  in 328 

Cellar  Excavations — 

28  ft.  0  in.    X  43  ft.  0  in.  X  5  ft.  0  in 6,622 

12  ft.  6  in.   X     3  ft.  0  in.  X  5  ft.  6  in 206 

26  ft.  0  in.   X   20  ft.  6  in.  X  5  ft.  6  in 2,931 

9  ft.  0  in.   X     6  ft.  6  in.  X  5  ft.  6  in 322 


« 


Carried  J orward  11,784    cu.  ft 


292 


R-EL^lDLiMCIL-  AT  -    RlDGE-DAl^E.  -  /^  1  ^v/ O  UP^I-^o^- 


.  I  1 1 


•  rT-ivrLV.  At)ooT>xe-  Arc Ki  led      m^j-on,  E>oiWinft  -      bo/'ton.- 


=ffil^ 


-i^nf p- ^AJ.^^7f (y 


□  □ 


DCTAIL-OF  FRO/^T^  LLLVATION- 


Fig.  3 


04  ESTIMATING 


Brought  forward  11,784  cu.  ft. 
Miscellaneous  Quantities — 
Piers 

2ft.  0 in.   X    2 ft.  0  in.   X  3  ft.  Gin.   X   12      168 
Trench 

185  ft.  0  in.   X    1  ft.  8  in.   X   1  ft.  0  in 308 

Area 

14  ft.  0  in.   X    2  ft.  8  in.   X   3  ft.  (i  in 129 

Drains 

123ft.  0 in.   X    3ft.  Gin.   X    1ft.  Gin 645 

Cesspools 

5  ft.  Gin.    X    5  ft.  6 in.   X  8 ft.  0 in 242 

10  ft.  0  in.   X  10  ft.  0  in.   X  8  ft.  0  in SOO 

Dry  Wells 

6  X   2  ft.  0  in.    X   2  ft.  0  in.   X   5  ft.  0  in._  J120 

Total,      14,19G  cu.  ft. 
Total,  14,196  cu.  ft.,  or  525  cu.  yds.,  at  50  cents   ....  $262 .  50 

STONEWORK 

Dry  Walls  in  Trench —  Cu.  Ft. 

16  ft.  0  in,  X   1ft.  8  in.   X.  Ift.Oin 27 

left.Oin.   X   lft.8in.   X   Ift.Oin 27 

12  ft.  6  in.   X    1ft.  8  in.   X   Ift.Oin 20.8 

3  ft.  0  in.   X   1ft.  8  in.   X   Ift.Oin.         ...         5 

23  ft.  0  in.   X   1  ft.  8  in.   X   1  ft.  0  in 38 

16  ft.  6  in.    X   1  ft.  8  in.  X   1  ft.  0  in 27.5 

28  ft.  0  in.   X   1  ft.  8  in.   X   1  ft.  0  in 46 

28  ft.  0  in.   X    1  ft.  8  in.   X    1  ft.  0  in 46 

14  ft.  6  in.   X   1ft.  8  in.   X    Ift.Oin 24 

4  ft.  6  in.   X   1ft.  8  in.   X    Ift.Oin 7.5 

23  ft.  0  in.   X    1  ft.  8  in.   X    1  ft.  0  in __3S 

Total,    306.8 cu.  ft. 
307    cu.    ft.   -!-  25  ==  12  perches  of  dry  wall. 

Mortar  Walls — 

16  ft.  0  in.  X  6  ft.  7  in.  X  1ft.  8  in 175 

16  ft.  0  in.  X  6  ft.  7  in.  X  1ft.  8  in 175 

9  ft.  6  in.  X  8  ft.  3  in.  X  1ft.  8  in 130 

Carried  forward       480  cu.  ft. 


294 


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66  ESTIMATING 


Brought  forward  480  cu.  ft. 

23  ft.  0  in.  X  8  ft.  3  in.  X    1  ft.  8  in 316 

12 ft.  0 in.  X   6ft.  Tin.  X    1ft.  8 in 132 

28  ft.  0  in.  X  8  ft.  3  in.  X   1  ft.  8  in 385 

6  ft.  0  in.  X   6  ft.  7  in.  X   1ft.  6  in 59 

10  ft.  0  in.  X   6  ft.  7  in.  X    1ft.  0  in 66 

8  ft.  6  in.  X   6  ft.  7  in.  X    1  ft.  8  in 93 

9  ft.  0  in.  X   8  ft.  3  in.  X   1  ft.  8  in 123 

25  ft.  0  in.  X  6  ft.  7  in.  X   1  ft.  8  in 274 

6  ft.  0  in.  X  6  ft.  7  in.  X   1  ft.  8  in 66 

23  ft.  0  in.  X  6  ft.  7  in.  X   1  ft.  8  in 252 

Piers — 

2  ft.  6  in.  X   5  ft.  6  in.  X    Ift.Oin 14 

2  ft.  6  in.  X   5  ft.  6  in.  X    Ift.Oin 14 

2  ft.  0  in.  X   2  ft.  0  in.  X    1  ft.  0  in 4 

12  ft.  0  in.  X  3  ft.  6  in.  X   2  ft.  0  in 84 

12  ft.  0  in.  X   3  ft.  6  in.  X   2  ft.  0  in.           ..  84 
Area — 

14  ft.  0  in.  X   3  ft.  6  in.  X    1  ft.  6  in 73 

Total,     2,519  cu.fto 
2,519  cu.  ft  -^  25  =  101  perches  of  mortar  wall. 

Underpinning —  Cu.  Ft. 

16  ft.  0  in.  X  1ft.  8  in.  X  1ft.  8  in 45 

16  ft.  0  in.  X  1ft.  8  in.  X  1ft.  8  in 45 

6  ft.  0  in.  X  1ft.  8  in.  X  1  ft.  8  in 17 

12  ft.  0  in.  X  1ft.  8  in.  X  1  ft.  8  in 34 

6  ft.  0  in.  X  1  ft.  0  in.  X  1  ft.  0  in 6 

8  ft.  6  in.  X  1ft.  8  in.  X  1ft.  8  in 23 

25  ft.  0  in.  X  1ft.  8  in.  X  1  ft.  8  in 70 

6  ft.  0  in.  X  1ft.  8  in.  X  1ft.  8  in 17 

23  ft.  0  in.  X   1  ft.  8  in.  X  1  ft.  8  in 64 

14  ft.  0  in.  X  2  ft.  0  in.  X  1ft.  6  in 42 

Total,    363cu.  ft. 

363  cu.  ft.  H-  25  =  142  perches  of  underpinning. 

Summary  of  Stonework — 

12    perches  of  dry  wall,  at  $3.00 $  36.00 

Carried  forward  $  36.00 


296 


ESTIMATING  67 

Brought  forward  $     36 . 00 

101    perches  of  mortar  walls,  at  $4.25 429 .  25 

14^  perches  of  underpinning,  at  $6 .  50 94 .  25 

Total  cost  of  Stonework,     $559 .  50 

PLASTERING  WALLS  WITH  CEMENT 

192  ft.  0  in.  X  6  ft.  7  in.  =  1,264  sq.  ft.  =  140  sq.  yds.,  at  $.40  $  56.00 

CESSPOOLS 

Leaching  Cesspool — 

23  ft.  6  in.  X  S  ft.  0  in.  X  1  ft.  6  in.  =  282  cu.  ft.  -^  25  = 

11^  perches. 

IH  perches  at  $3.50 $39.65 

Cover 2.50        42. 15 

Tight  Cesspool — 

11  ft.  6  in.  X  8  ft.  0  in.  =  92  sq.  ft.  X   15  bricks  - 
1,380  bricks. 

1,380  bricks  at  $20.00  per  M !.  .$27.60 

Iron  cover    3 .00        30.60 

DRY  WELLS 

2  ft.  0  in.  X  2  ft.  0  in.  X  5  ft.  0  in.  X  12  =  264  cu.  ft.  --  25  = 

1 1  perches 
11  perches  at  $2.50 27.50 

DRAINS 

171  ft.  at  $.20 $34.20 

14  bends  at  $.30 4.20        38.40 

Total  cost  of  Stonework,  Cesspools,  and  Drains  $754.15 

BRICKWORK 

Note. — Find  the  number  of  bricks  in  a  foot  of  height  in  each 
chimney  or  pier,  reckoning  five  courses  to  the  foot  of  height. 

Cellar — 

.     35     X  8     280 

107^  X  8     860 

55     X  8     ■     440 

Carried  forward     1,580  bricks 


297 


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ESTIiMATING  71 


Brought  forward     1,580  bricks 
Veranda  Piers — 

58*  X   10       585 

Chimneys — 

107h  X     6ft.  6in 700 

105  X   11  ft.  0  in 1,155 

35  X   11  ft.  0  in 385 

35  X     4  ft.  6  in 157 

127i  X     5  ft.  6  in 701 

35  X   19  ft.  0  in 665 

57;V  X     4  ft.  0  in 230 

127i  X   IHt.Oin 1,402 

7, 560  bricks 
Summary — 

7,560  bricks  at  $20.00  per  M.,  laid $  151 .  20 

3  fireplaces  at  S30.00  each 90 .  00 

Flue  Linings — 

26  ft.,  13  in.   X   13  in.,  at  $.35 9.10 

36  ft.,    9in.  round,  at $.30 10.80 

68ft.,8J  X   13,at$.30 20.40 

Total  cost  of  Brickwork  and  Flue  Linings,  $  281 .50 

CONCRETING 

Sq.  Ft. 
23  ft.  0  in.   X  38  ft.  0  in 874 

3  ft.  0  in.   X     9  ft.  6  in 28^ 

15  ft.  0  in.   X  26  ft.  0  in 390 

4  ft.  0  in.   X     7  ft.  0  in 28 

1^20  sq.  ft. 
Total,  1,320  sq.  ft.  =  147  sq.  yds.,  at  $.60 , . .     $88 .  20 

PLASTERING 

Note. — ^Take  off  square  feet  of  plastered  surfaces,  and  deduct 
one-half  of  the  openings,  after  reducing  to  sq.  yds. 
Cellar —  Sq.  Ft. 

23  ft.  0  in.   X  38  ft.  0  in 874 

9ft.  0  in.   X     3  ft.  0  in 28 

Carried  forward        902  sq.  ft. 


301 


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ESTIMATING  73 


Brought  forward     902  sq.  ft. 

15  ft.  6  in.   X   26  ft.  0  in 403 

30  ft.  0  in.   X     8  ft.  0  in 240 

1 ,545  sq.  ft. 
First  Story — 

25  ft.  Oin.   X   40ft.  Oin 1,000 

llft.Oin.   X     3 ft.  Oin 33 

25  ft.  6  in.   X    16  ft.  6  in 420 

490 ft.  0 in.   X     9 ft.  Oin 4,410 

5,863  sq.  ft. 
Second  Story — 

Sq.  Ft. 
25  ft.  0  in.   X  40  ft.  0  in 1,000 

16  ft.  6  in.   X   19  ft.  Oin 313 

520 ft.  0 in.   X     8ft.  6  in 4,420 

5,733  sq.  ft. 
Total  amount  of  plastered  surfaces,  13,141  sq.  ft. 

Outs — 

32  doors,  average  40  sq.  ft 1,280 

34  windows,  average  15  sq.  ft 510 

1,790  sq.  ft. 
1,790 sq.ft.    -  2  =   895 sq.ft. 

13,141  sq.  ft.  less  895  sq.  ft.  =  12,246  sq.  ft.  =  1,361  sq.  yds. 

Total  cost  of  Plastering  1,361  sq.  yds.,  at  S. 40 S  544.40 

CARPENTER  WORK 

Frame— 

Ft.B.M. 

188  linear  ft,  6  X     6in.sill 564 

136     "       "     4  X     6in.  " 272 

74     "       "     8  X   lOin.  girders 494 

250     "       "     4  X     Oin.  posts 500 

188     "       "4X6  in.  girts   376 

2,206 
2,206ft.  B.  :M.  at $38.00 per  M $  83.82 

First-Story  Frame,  Bridging  and  Under  Floor — 

25  ft.  0  in.   X  40  ft.  0  in 1,000 

Carried  forward  $  83.82 


303 


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76  ESTIMATING 

Brought  forward  ■     $83.82 

lift.  0  in.   X     3  ft.  0  in 33 

26  ft.  0  in.   X    16  ft.  6  in 429 

1,462  sq.ft. 

1,462  sq.  ft.  =  14.62  squares,  at  $9.35  per  square $  136.70 

Upper  Floor — 
Hard  Pine 

25  ft.  6  in.  X  16  ft.  6  in.  =     421  si[.  ft.,  at  $10.50 

per  square '. $     44 .  21 

Oak 

25  ft.  0  in.  X  40  ft.  0  in.  =  1,000  sq.  ft. 
11  ft.  0  in.  X    3  ft.  0  in.  =  __33    " 

1,033  sq.  ft. 

1 ,033  sq.  ft.  at  $20.00  per  square $  206 .  60 

Porch  Floor — 

6 ft.  0 in.    X    llft.Oin.    =     06 sq.ft. 
9 ft.  0 in.   X     5ft.0in.   -     45     " 
Piazza  Floor — 

26  ft.  0  in.   X     9  ft.  0  in.   =   234     " 
20  ft.  6  in.   X     7  ft.  0  in.   =  J44     " 

^89  sq.  ft. 

489  sq.  ft.  at  $12.35  per  square $     00 .  39 

Second-Story  Frame,  Bridging  and  Strapping  Floors — 

40  ft.  0  in.   X   25  ft.  0  in 1 ,000  sq.  ft. 

20ft.  Oin.    X    17ft.  0 in 340  "  " 

1 ,340~sq.  ft. 

1,340  sq.  ft.  at  $18.00  per  square $  241 .20 

Third  Story — 

1 ,340  sq.  ft.  at  $10. 10  per  square $  1 35 .  34 

Roof  Fraime,  Boarding  and  Shingles- 

30  ft.  0  in.  X  16  ft.  6  in.  X  2  sides .  .     990  sq.  ft. 
34 ft.  Oin.  X  10 ft.  6  in.  X  2 sides.  .  1.122  "  " 

2,1 12  sq.ft. 

2,112  sq.  ft.  at  $16.67  per  square $  352 .07 

Flashing $    40.00 

Tin  Roof,  Frame  and  Boarding — 

21  ft.  0  in.   X   7  ft.  6  in 157  sq.  ft. 

Carried  forward  $1,300.33 


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Fig.  11. 


ESTDIATIXG 


Brought  jorward  $1,300.33 

19  ft.  0  in.   X   6  ft.  fi  in 124sq.  ft. 

11  ft.  0  in.   X  5  ft.  0  in GO  "  " 

14  ft.  0  in.   X   9  ft.  0  in J33  "  " 

.      474  sq.  ft. 
474  sq.  ft.  at  $20.92  per  square $     99 .  IG 

Outside  Walls,  Studding  and  Boarding — 

172  ft.  0  in.  X  20  ft  0  in 3,440  sq.  ft. 

G  ft.  G  in.  X  10  ft.  0  in.  X  2  sides       130  "  " 

3  ft.  0  in.  X    9  ft.  0  in.  X  2  sides 54  "  " 

3,G24  sq.ft. 
3,G24  sq.  ft.  at  $8.30  per  square  $  300 .  79 

Inside  Studding — 

ISOft.Oin.  X    Oft.Oin l,G20sq.ft. 

19Gft.0in.  X    8ft.  Gin 1,GGG  "    '' 

28 ft.  0  in.  X    Sft.  0  in 224  "    " 

37510  sq.  ft. 
3,510  sq.  ft.,  at  $4.00  per  square  $  140.40 

Clapboarding — 

44  ft.  0  in.  X  19  ft.  0  in.  X  2  sides .   1 ,  G72  sq.  ft. 
G  ft.  0  in.  X    8  ft.  0  in.  X  2  sides .         96  "  " 
2  ft.  0  in.  X    9  ft.  0  in.  X  2  sides .         3G  "  " 
39  ft.  0  in.  X  19  ft.  0  in.  X  2  sides .    1,482  "  " 

3,28G  sq.  ft. 
3,286  sq.  ft.  at  $7.95  per  square ...  $261 .  23 
Deduct  for  stock  only,  36  windows 

-  54r,  sq.  ft.,  at  $4.70  per  square      25 .  38  $  235 .  85 


miscellaneous 

Dormers — 

6,  at  $50  each $  300.00 

Main  Cornice — 

180  ft.,  at  $1.25  per  ft 225.00 

B.\LUSTRADE   ON    RoOF — 

96  ft.,  at  $0.50  per  ft $48.00 

18  posts,  at  $1.50  each .     27.00  75.00 

Carried  forward  $2,676.53 


808 


ESTIMATING  79 

Piazza  Finish—  Brought  forward  §2,676.53 

Cornice — 

102  ft.,  at  $2.00  per  ft 204.00 

Columns — 

9  in  place,  at  SIO.OO  each 90 .  00 

Corner  Pilasters — 

2Hn  place,  at  $8.00  each 20.00 

Balustrade — 

76  ft.,  at  $.50  per  ft $38 .00 

Small  Posts — 

SiatSl.OOeach 12.00  50.00 

Outside  Steps 25 .00 

Lattice — 

55  ft.  0  in.  X  1  ft.  6  in.  =  82*  sq.  ft.,  at  $.15 

persq.  ft 12.37 

Porch  Ceiling — 

111  sq.ft.,  at  $10.00  per  square 11.10 

Bulkhead  Steps 25 .  00 

corxer  b0ards-7 

252  ft.  0  in.  X  8  in,  =  168  sq.  ft.,  at  .S.30  per  sq.  ft.       50.40 
Water  Table — 

117Minearft.,at$.20perft 23.50 

Windows  and  Frames — 
Attic— 

4  windows,  circular  top,  at $11 .20  each      $  44.80 

4  ''.indows,  square,  at $5 .  25  each  21 .  00 

Second  Story — 

8  windows,  3  ft.  6  in.  X  5  ft.  0  in.,  at  $13.33 each  $106.64 
7  windows,  2  ft.  6  in.   X  4ft.  6  in.,  at  811 .44  each  80.08 

First  Story — 

1  window,   2  ft.  6  in.   X   4  ft.  6  in $  11 .44 

2  windows,  2 ft.  6  in.  X  5  ft.  6  in.,  at  $12.00 each  24.00 
2  windows,  2  ft.  6  in.  X  3  ft.  9  in.,  at  $11 . 00  eacli  22 . 00 
2  pairs  French  windows  (oak), 

.     4  ft.  6  in.   X   7  ft.  6  in.,  at  $18. 24 each  36.48 

1  window,  3  ft.  4  in.   X  5  ft.  6  in.  (oak  finish) .  .  .  16.57 

Carried  foncard  $3,550.91 


309 


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ESTLAIATIXG  81 


Brought  forward  §3,550.91 
1  window,  3  ft.  4  in.   X  5  ft.  6  in.  (birch;finish)  .  .         16.57 

1  window,  2 ft.  6 in.   X  5 ft.  6 in.  (birchfinish)  .  .         14.45 

2  windows,  3  ft.  4  in.   X  5  ft.  5  in.  (whitewood),  at 

S13.33each  26.66 

4  windows,  2  ft.  6  in.   X   4  ft.  6  in.  (X.  C.  pine),  at 

.S11.44each  45.76 

Front  Door,  with  side  and  top  lights — 

3  ft.  3  in.   X   7  ft.  6  in 56 .33 

Rear  Door — 

2ft.  10 in.   X   7  ft.  Gin 13.46 

Cellar  Sashes — 

12,  at  S3.25  each. 39.00 

Inside  Finish — 

Coal  bins  in  basement,  240  sq.  ft. 

Studding  240  sq.  ft.  at  $3 .  00  per  square  S  7 .  20 

Boarding240     "      "$4.75       "       "      11.40 

Labor  on  2  doors,  one  day 3 .  25  21 .  85 

Cold-Air  Box — 

3  ft.  0  in.  X  1  ft.  0  in.,  25  ft."  long,  at  $.62  per  linear  ft 15 .50 

Basement  Partitions — 

46  ft.  0  in.  X  8  ft.  0  in.,  368  sq.  ft.,  at  $8.75  per  square ....       32.20 

3  doors,  at  $8.87  each 26 .  61 

67^  ft.  shelving,  at  $.15  per  ft 10. 12 

1  door  to  bulkhead 10 .  00 

First  Story — 

1  door,  2  ft.  8  in.  X  7  ft.  6  in.  (whitewood  and  birch  finish)     20 .  67 

1  pair  sliding  doors  (whitewood  and  birch  finish)      53.52 

40  ft.  birch  base  at  $. 20  per  ft 8 .00 

1  door,  3  ft.    3  in.   X   7  ft.  6  in.  (whitewood  and  oak) 22.67 

1  door,  2  ft.  10  in.   X   7  ft.  6  in.  (whitewood  and  oak) 20 .  67 

Wood  Cornice  in  Dining  Room — 

56  ft.,  6  in.   X  6  in.  (birch),  at  $.48  per  ft $26.88 

56  ft.  picture  moulding,  at  $.06  per  ft 3 .  36  30 .  24 

Wood  Cornice  in  Library — 

82  ft.,  6  in.   X  6  in.  (oak),  at  $.48  per  ft §39.36 


Carried  forward  $39.36      $4,035.19 


311 


82  ESTIMATING 


Brought  forward  $39.36     $4,035.19 
82  ft.  picture  moulding,  at  $.0G  per  ft 4.92  44 . 28 

Oak  Base — 

72  ft.  at  $.20  per  ft .' 14.40 

1  door,  3  ft.  0  in.   X  7  ft.  6  in  (whitewood) 1 2 .  59 

Vestibule  Door,  side  lights  and  top  light,  same  as  front  door.  56 .  33 

Whitewood  Base,  101  ft.,  at  $.10  per  ft 10.10 

5doors  (N.  C.  pine),  at  $9.48each 47.40 

China  Closet  Finish 100.00 

Pantry 50.00 

Kitchen  and  Back  Entry  Sheathing — 

65hnearft.,at$.40perft 26.00 

Mantels — 

Allowance $125.00 

Labor  of  setting 6.50     $131 .50 

Second  Story — 

1  6  doors  stock,  at  $9.48  each $151 .68 

larchinhall 10.00 

2  wood  columns,  at  $10.00  each 20.00 

5 closets,  at $3.50 each 17.50 

1  Hnen closet    .' 25.00 

1  linen  closet    20.00 

Third  Story — 

2  doors,  finishe;!  one  side,  at  $7.04  each   $  14 .08 

1  closet  door 7 .  04 

Tank 10.00 

Finished  floor,  lOOsq.  ft 7.25 

Base,  14  ft.,  at  $.10  per  ft 1 .  40 

Conductors^ 

120  ft.,  at  $.13  per  ft.,  put  up $15.60 

6 goosenecks, at $1.00 each 6.00      $  21.60 

Cutting  and  Fitting  for  Plumbing  and  Heating 35 .  00 

Freight,  Fares  and  Expenses ' 50.00 

Insurance 10.00 

Total  cost  of  Carpenter  Work $4,928 .  34 


312 


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84  ESTIMATING 


STAIRS 

Front  Stairs — 

128 ft.  spruce,  at  $30  per M 3.84 

120  ft.  whitewood,  at  S70  per  INI 8 .  40 

85  ft.  quartered  oak,  at  $150  per  ]\I 12 .  75     . 

30  ft.  mahogany  rail  and  turn    24.00 

5  paneled  posts  at  $5.00  each  25 .00 

105  balusters  at  $.15  each 15 .  75 

11  nosings  at  $.06  each -66 

25  scotias  at  $.03  each 75 

Nails,  glue,  etc 1-00 

Labor •')6.00      $148.15 

Back  Stairs — 
First  Flight— 

55ft.  spruce,  at  $30 per  M $  1 .65 

105 ft  N.C.  pine,  at  $60 per  M  6.30 

16  scotias  at  $.03  each .48 

Nails,  etc 75 

Labor IG^  25.18 

Second  Flight — 

54  ft.  spruce,  at  $30  per  ]\I $  1 .62 

110  ft.  N.C.  pine,  at  $60  per  M 6.60 

17  scotias  at  $.03  each 51 

Nails,  etc '  •  ''^ 

1  post         •.  •        -75 

4  ft.  rail,  at  $.m  per  ft 50 

12  balusters  at  $.06i  each 75 

Labor }l^  28.48 

Cellar  Stairs — 

40  ft.  spruce,  at  $30  per  M $  1.20 

75  ft.  N.  C.  pine,  at  $60 per M 4.50 

Post -50 

Rail 1.20 

Labor 5.00  12.40 

$214.21 

Framing 2 .  00 

Total  cost  of  Stairs $216.21 


314 


r/j?^T    fLOOi^    rj./!/^ 


FIRST-FLOOR  PLAN  OF  RESIDENCE  FOR  MR.  HANS   HOFFMAN,  MILWAUKEE,  WIS. 

COST  OF  HOUSE: 


Mason  Work %    625.00 

Carpentry 3,684  00 

Tinning. 36  00 

Pluiubing 380.00 

Plastering. 253.00 


Heating  {Furnace) $    167.00 

Painting. 325.00 

Decorating 53.00 

Total $4,523.00 


Built  in  1902.    Oak   Wainscoting    and  Ceiling  in  Dining   Kooni;  Oak  Finish  in  Stair  Hall  and  All  Main 
Rooms  on  First  Floor;  Cypress  iu  Balance  ol  House.     For  Exterior,  See  Page  331. 


SECOND-FLOOR  PLAN   OF   RESIDENCE   FOR   MR.    HANS   HOFFMAN,    MILWAUKEE,  WIS. 

First-Floor  Plan  Shown  on  Opposite  Page. 


ESTIMATING  85 


HARDWARE 

Note. — ^This  estimate  is  based  upon  a  fair  quality  of  hardware, 
the  butts  being  of  bronze-plated  steel,  the  knobs  of  struck-up  bronze 
metal,  with  rose  and  escutcheon  combined;  the  sash  fasts  of  solid 
bronze  metal,  also  lifts  and  catches. 

BASEMENT 

Bulkhead,  Outside — 

2  pairs  extra  heavy  galv.  T  hinges,    S-inch  at 

$.85  each $1.70 

2  hooks  and  staples,  5-inch,  at  $ .  10  each         .  20 

Labor 1 .00 

Bulkhead,  Inside — 

1  pair  heavy  T  hinges,  8-inch 15 

1  thumb-latch 10 

Labor 50 

Three  Doors — 

3  pairs  butts,  Sj   X  S^Wnch,  at $.15 each  .45 

3  sets  locks  at $ .  45  each  1 .  35 

Labor 1 .  50 

Hinged  Windows — 

12 pairs  butts,  IHnch,  at $.06  each       .72 

12  hooks  and  eyes,  at     $ .  02  each       .  24 

12  buttons,  at $.02  each       .24 

Labor 1 .50    $  9.65 

FIRST  FLOOR 

Entrance  Door — 

H  pairs  butts,  4-^-  X  4^-inch,  at $.38  each  $   .57 

1  set  locks,  bronze  metal 9 .  50 

Labor 2.00 

Seven  Inside  Doors,  Front — 

7  pairs  butts,  3^-  X  3Wnch,  at $.30  each  2. 10 

7sets  locks  at $1.00each  7.00 

Labor , 5 .  25 

Carried  forward  $26 .42      $9 .  65 


315 


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ESTIMATING  87 


Erought  funvard  $26  A2      $9.65 
Side  Entrance  Door — 

Impairs  butts,  4^-  X  4i-inch,  at S.38each         .57 

Isetlocks 2.25 

Labor ^l.OO 

One  Pair  Sliding  Doors,  5  ft.  0  in. — 

1  set  hangers,  5  ft.  0  in,  Double    3 .  50 

1  sets.  D.  locks :  . .  . 2.50 

Labor 2.00 

Six  Inside  Back  Portions — 

6  sets  lock  sat 1.45  each  2.70 

6  pairs  butts,  3^  X  3^>-inch,  at $  .15  each  . 90 

Labor 4.00 

Back  Doors — 

H  pairs  butts,  4h  X  4Hnch,  at $ .  20  each  .  30 

Isetlocks 2.25 

Labor 1.00 

Ice-Chest  Door — 

1  pair  butts,  3  X  3-inch .40 

1 IH  lever,  galvanized    .60 

1  brass  hasp  and  padlock 1 .  50 

Labor .50 

China  Closet — 
2  pairs  glass  doors — 

2  pairs  butts,  2^  X  2Hnch,  at $ .  26  each  .  52 

2  elbow  catches,  at    $ .  06  each  .  12 

2  cupboard  catches,  at  .  . S .  15  each  .  30 

1  pair  cupboard  doors — 

2  pairs  butts,  2h  X  2Hnch,  at -S .  10  each  .  20 

1  elbow  catch .06 

1  cupboard  catch .15 

20  dra\\er-pulls,  at S .  06  each  1  .  20 

Labor 2.50 

Pantry — 

4  cupboard  doors — 

4  pairs  butts,  2^  X  2^-inch,  at $ .  10  each  .40 


Carried  forward  $57.84      $9.65 


317 


88  ESTBIATING 


Brought  forward  $57.84       $9.05 

4  cupboard  catches,  at $.  15 each  .60 

1  bl)l.  swing .75 

"       10  drawer-pulls,  at    $ . 06  each  . 60 

Labor 2.00 

Windows — 

15  sash  fasts,  at $.30 each  4.50 

30  sash  lifts,  at $.06  each  1  .80 

Labor 7 .  50 

Casement  "Windows, 

4  pairs  butts,  3  X  3-inc-h ,  at $ .  50  each  2 .  00 

2  pairs  flush  bolts,  at  $1 .  00  each  2 .  00 

2  casement  fasts,  at ' $ .  45  each  .      .  90 

Labor 1.00    $81.49 

SECOND  FLOOR 

Sixteen  Doors — 

16  pairs  butts,  3^  X  SHnc'li,  :»t  ■■••  .$.30  each  $  4.80 

16sets locks,  at $.90each    14.40 

Labor 10.40 

Windows — 

14  sash  fasts,  at.... $.30each  4.20 

1  sash  fast .35 

28  sash  lifts,  at $.00  each  1 .68 

2  sash  lifts,  at $.10each  .20 

Labor 7.00 

Six  Drawers  in  Linen  Closet — 

12 drawer-pulls,  at $.06each         .72 

Labor .25    $44.00 

Bathroom — 

1  pair  butts,  3^  X  3^-inch  (nickel-plate)    40 

1  set  locks  (nickel-plate) 1 .  25 

Labor .75        $  2.40 

ATTIC 

Two  Doors — 

2  pairs  butts,  3^  X  3Hnch,at  .  .  .  ..$.12  each.  .  .  .$.24 

2sets locks,  at $.45 each 90 

Labor 1.00 


Carried  forward  $2.14     $137.54 


318 


Fig.  16. 


Fig.  16. 


ESTIMATING  91 


Brought  forward  $2.14       §137.54 
Two  Low  Doors — 

2  pairs  butts,  2h  X  2.\-inch,  at ,?.10  each 20 

2  cupboard  turns,  at   $.35  each 70 

Labor .' 1 .  00 

Windows — 

8  sash  fasts,  at    $.30  each.  .  .  .2.40 

16  sash  Hfts,  at $.06  each 90 

Labor 4.00 

6  doz.  H.  &  C.  hooks,  639^^,  at  ...  .  $.50  doz 3 .  00 

3  doz.  ba.se  knobs,  at $.35  doz 1 .05 

Labor  .2.50      $  17.95 

Total  cost  of  Hardware  put  on $155 .  49 

HEATING 

Furnace — 

1  No.  28  Crawford  furnace  (28-in.  firepot)  .  .   $125 .00     ' 

22  ft.  S-in.   galv.  iron  smoke-pipe,  55  lbs., 

at $.09  lb.  4.95 

Registers — 

1  14  X  18-in.  register,  stone,  box  and  netting,  4.72 

4  9  X  12-in.  registers,  stone,  box  and  netting, 

at $1.57  each  0.28 

4    8  X  10-in.  registers,  stone,  box  and  netting, 

at $1.19  each  4.76 

4  8  X  10-in.  registers,  stone,  box  and  netting, 

at $1.15  each  4.60 

Piping,  including  dampers,  collars,  and  elbows — 

12  ft.  14-in.  tin  pipe,  at $.27  per  ft..  .  3.24 

64ft.  9-in.     "     "      at $.16    "    "..  10.24 

278  ft.  7-in.     "     "     at $.10    "    "..  27.  SO 

Covering  for  Risers  (6  lbs.  asbestos  paper  per  pipe) — 

5  risers,  30  lbs.,  at  $.05  lb. 1 .50 

Plastering  Rings  in  Cellar — 

For  13  pipes  at  $.20  each 2.60 

$  195.69 
Office  expense  and  profit   48.92      $244.61 

Carried  forward  $244 .  61 


321 


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ESTIMATING  93 


Brought  forward  $244. Gl 

Labor — 

INIeasurino-  and  laying  out  risers,  man  1  day  .  $4 .  SO 
Erecting  risers,  man  2  days,  helper  1  day ...  .  1 2 .  00 
Laying  out  and  erecting  cellar  pipes  and  fur- 
nace, inan  3  days,  helper  2  days 19 .20 

Finishing,  man  1  day    4.80 

Carting  and  expenses    10.00  50.80 


Total  cost  of  Heating  Apparatus $  295 .41 

PLUMBING 

Waste  and  Soik  Pipes — 

2  4-in.  lead  Fends,  at  $1.10  each .^  $2 .  20 

2  4-in.  sleeves,  at  $.65  each .....:...  1 .  30 

5  2-in.      "    '  at   $.28each  ..../.. 1 .40 

2  3  X  2-in.  sleeves,  at  $ .  45  each .90 

1  1^-in.  Penlberton trap ! .  .^ 6.80 

30 lbs.  solder,  wiping,  at$.25 lb 7 .'50 

2  trap  plugs,  at  $.42  each   .84 

2  6-in.  tra/s,  at  $2.35  each 4 .  70 

1  6-in.  cesspool   3 .  00 

4  1^-inch  solder  nipples,  at  $ .  15  each .60 

1  4-in.  roof  flashing 1 .  35 

Soil  pipe  47 .  87 

15  ft.  H-in.  lead  pipe.  No.  55 3 .24 

50  ft.    2-in.  iron  pipe  |  g  ng 

40ft.  li-in.     "       "     f 

Soil  fittings,  ^  cost  of  pipe 15 .96 

Cast-iron  fittings,  20  per  cent 1-79     $  108 .41 

Miscellaneous  Fittings — 

3  4-in,b?ssCO $  2.70 

1  5-in.  brass  CO   1.50 

Refrigerator  waste    1 2 .  50 

Local  vents    12.00 

1  ball-cock  1-25 

2  sill  cocks    2.00 

Tank  overflow 6 .  50 

4|-inchS.  &W. cocks 3.24 

Carried  forward  $41.69      $108.41 


323 


04  ESTIMATING 


B roughf  fonvcml  S  4 1 .  69     $  1 08 . 4 1 

1  boiler  valve  and  chain .70 

25  lbs.  tinned  copper,  at  $.32  lb 8 .  00 

6  3-part  hangers,  brass 6 .  30 

2  ^-in.  hose  bibs 1 .50 

3  |-inch  plain  bibs 2.10 

Street  connections 55 .  00 

lib.  putty 05 

2  lb?,  grafting  wax .50 

Calking  lead,  380  lbs 22.80 

Oakum 1.60    $  140.24 

FiXTURE.S — 

1  3G  X  24  X  8-in.  sink,  12-in.  back $11 .40 

1  24  X  14-in.  pantry  sink 14.00 

1  pair  pantry  cocks 3 .60 

2  24  X  48-in.  trays,  12-in.  back 14. 10 

1  5-ft.  bathtub,  complete 41 .00 

1  lavatory,  complete 32 .  50 

1  water-closet,  complete  60.00 

1  40-gallon  boiler 10.75 

1  "         "        ."    stand 85    . 

12  lbs.  fine  solder 3 .  12 

Clamps  and  hooks 2 .  70 

Tinned  tacks .15 

Fuel 1.95     $  202. 12 

Supplies  and  IvAbor — 

126  ft.  |-inch  galv.  water  pipe $4 .41 

22ft.  i-inch      "        "       " .62 

Fittings,  ^  cost  of  pipe 1 .67 

74  ft.  ^in.  brass $23.49 

56  ft.  Hn.      " 16.24  39.73 

Fittings,  20  per  cent • 7 .95 

Painting  of  iron  pipes 9 .  75 

Stop-cocks .  3 .  54 

Sink  and  tray  legs 4 .  72 

Lead,  oil,  etc .165 

Carried  forward  $  7S .04:    $450.77 


324 


ESTLMATIXG  95 


Brought  Jorward  S  73.04     S  450.77 

Clamping  brass  and  screws .25 

Cartage  and  fares 5 .  00 

Labor,  40  days,  at  S6.00  per  day 240 .  00  318 .  29 

$  769.06 

Profit,  10  per  cent 76 .90 

Total  cost  of  Plumbing S  845 .96 

ELECTRIC   WIRING 

75  ft.  No.  4  S.  B.  R.C.  wire S  4.80 

150  ft.  No.  1  S.  B.  R.  C.  wire 4.26 

40        Large  porcelain  tubes,  5  cents 2 .  00 

30            "           "        knobs,  5  cents 1 .50 

1        3-pole  50-amp.  fused  switch 1 .50 

1        Main  cabinet  (meter) 3 .  50 

1        8-circuit  cut-out  panel 16 .00 

2,500  ft.  No.  14 S.B.  R.C.  wire 28.60 

500  ft.   1  4-in.  circular  loom 20.00 

800        5^  knobs 3.20 

1 ,600        5-in.  porcelain  tubes 4 .  00 

100        Fire  stops 9 .00 

100         12-in.  porcelain  tubes 10.00 

18        Ceiling  boxes 1 .  80 

30        Bracket  boxes 3 .00 

11        Switch  boxes 2.20 

11            "         "      12.10 

Labor  on  No.  14  wire 55 .00 

"mains  15.00 

"       "finish.... 15.00 

Teaming  and  freight 5 .  00 

Sundries 5 .  00 

Nails,  leatherheads,  etc 3 .  00 

$  22b  AQ 

Office  expense,  10  per  cent 22 .  55 

S  248.01 

Profit,  20  per  cent 49.60 

Total  cost  of  Electric  Wiring %  297.61 


325 


Of)  ESTIMATING 


Note. — This  estimate  is  figured  on  outlet  boxes  at  all  outlets; 
and  includes  a  main  cabinet  and  main  switch  to  connect  with  the 
meter  and  to  cover  the  meter,  on  an  eight-circuit  panel-board,  which 
allows  one  spare  circuit.  The  panel-board  is  to  be  made  of  slate,  with 
slate  gutters  and  linings,  with  good  wood  door  and  trim. 

The  labor  is  estimated  on  wages  being  $3.60  per  day  for  a  journey- 
man, and  $2.00  per  day  for  helper.  This  price  is  above  that  paid  in 
small  places,  but  is  below  what  is  paid  in  some  cities. 

ELECTRIC  LIGHTING  FIXTURES 

Note. — While  the  electric  lighting  fixtures  are  not  generally  made 
a  part  of  the  building  contract,  it  may  be  worth  while  to  consider  them 
in  relation  to  the  cost  of  the  house;  although,  as  has  been  stated,  there 
is  such  a  wide  range  in  design  and  cost,  as  well  as  in  personal  prefer- 
ence, that  any  data  given  can  be  at  best  only  approximate. 

The  following  estimate  is  based  upon  simple  designs  of  moderate 
cost  in  "old  brass"  finish: 

FIRST  STORY 

Living  Room —    ' 

1  4-light  electrolier $17 .50 

4  1-light  wall  brackets,  at  $3.25  each 13 .00 

Hall — 

2  2-light  ceiling  pieces,  at  $2.50  each  5 .  00 

Vestibule — 

1  3-light  cluster 5 .00 

Porch — 

1  1-light  ceiling-piece 1 .75 

Parlor — 

1  4-light  electrolier 1 7 .  50 

2  1     "     wall  brackets 6.50 

Dining  Room — 

1  4-light  electrolier 10.00 

2  1     "    wall  brackets 5 .00 

China  Closet,  Rear  Hall,  Kitchen — 

3  1-light  ceiling-pieces,  at  $.75  each 2.25 

2  1     "    wall  brackets,  at $1.35 each 2.70 

Carried  forward  $S6 .20 


320 


ESTIMATING  97 

Brought  forward  $  86 .  20 

Pantky — 

1  1-light  ceiling-piece ■  '^ 

Entry — 

11     "        "  "     1.35 

Piazza — 

11     "        "  "     , 1.75 

SECOND  STORY 

Hall — 

2  1-light  ceiling-pieces,  at  $1.50  each     $3 .00 

Alcove — 

2  1-light  ceiling  pieces,  at $2.50 each 5.00 

Bedrooms — 

13  1-light  brackets,  at  $2.50  each 32 .50 

Bathroom — 

1  1-light  ceiling-piece 1-35 

Rear  Hall — 

1  1-light  bracket  . 1 .35 

THIRD  STORY 

Hall — 

1  1-light  wall  bracket •       $1 .35 

Attic — 

1  3-ft.  drop-cord -85 

BASEMENT 

Laundry — 

1  1-light  wall  bracket $1 .  15 

Cellar — 

4  3-ft. drop-cords, at$.85 each 3.40 

$  140.00 
LABOR 

Installing  above  fixtures  with  all  necessary  trimmings . .  .   %  12.00 
Total  cost  of  Electric  Lighting  Fixtures  in  place ....   $152 .  00 

PAINTING 

Outside  Painting — 

17  pairs  blinds,  three  coats  painting,  at  $1.50  pair  ....   $  25 .50 

1,068  yds.  three  coats  painting,  windows  and  wood- 
work, at  $.20  yd ••     213.60 

Carried  forward  $239 .  10 


327 


98  ESTBIATING 

Brought  jonvard  $239.10 

54  yds.    two   coats    metallic    paint,  upper  side    tin 

roofs,  at  $.15  yd 8.10 

62  yds.  two  coats  oilingon  floors,  porch,  and  piazza,  at 

S.lOyd ■ 0-20 

Interior  Painting-t- 

16G  yds.  filling,  staining,  and  shellacing,  and  two 
coats  hard  oil  finish,  at  S .  20  yd $33 .  20 

245  yds.  filling  and  two  coats  spar  varnish,  first  coat 
rubbed,  at  $.25  yd 61 .25 

403  yds.  one  coat  shellac,  three  of  paint,  two  coats 
zinc  and  white  varnish.  Rubbed  with  pumice  and 
water,  ivory  white  finish,  at  $ .  80  yd 322 .  40 

294  yds.  treat  with  potash,  one  oil  filler,  clean,  four 
coats  shellac,  last  coat  rubbed  with  pumice  and  oil, 
oak  and  birch,  at  $.35  yd. 102.90 

109  vds.  filling,  four  coats  shellac,  last  coat  rubbed 
with  pumice  and  oil,  floors  at  $.30 yd 32.70 

114  yds.  size  and  three  coats  paint,  last  coat  with 
varnish,  walls,  at  $.20  yd 22.80 

5  yds.  three  coats  paint  and  one  enamel  gloss,  bath- 
tub, at  $.25  yd 1.25 

100  yds.  three  coats  paint,  last  with  zinc,  flat,  white- 
wood,  at  $.25  yd 25 .00 

10  yds.  one  coat  shellac  on  pipes,  at  $ .  10  yd 1 .  00 

299  yds.  size   and  tint  in  water-colors,  ceilings,  at 

$.15  yd 44.85 

Total  cost  of  Painting -.  .  .$  900.75 

GENERAL  SUMMARY 

Batter-Boards  and  Water  Supply $       25 .  00 

Excavation 262 .  50 

Stonework,  Cesspools,  and  Drains   754. 15 

Chimneys  and  Brickwork    281 .50 

Concreting 88.20 

Plastering 544.40 

Carpenter  Work 4,928.34 

Carried  forward  %Q,^^Am 


328 


DZmhJ^Of^  TRin^OI^^FIMT^  FLOOR' 


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100  ESTIMATING 


Brought  forward  $6,884.09 

Stairs 216.21 

Hardware 155.49 

Heating 295.41 

Plumbing 845 .  96 

Electric  Wiring 297 .  61 

Electric  Fixtures 152.00 

Painting ^00^75 

Total,    '$9,747.52 


SCHEDULES 

ANALYSIS  OF  CARPENTER  WORK 

Following  is  a  section  devoted  to  the  analysis  of  the  different 
portions  of  carpenter  work  in  the  foregoing  estimate.  These  show  how 
the  prices  are  obtained,  and  will  be  very  useful  for  comparison,  as  the 
changes  in  cost  of  parts  can  be  noted  and  kept  up  to  date. 
First  Floor,  price  per  square  of  100  sq.  ft.,  including  the  floor  beams, 
bridging,  and  under  floors,  but  no  furring  for  plaster — 

Joists,  2  X  10-in.,  16  inches  on  centers $3.25 

Labor 1.50 

Nails 10 

Bridging 50 

Under  floor,  hemlock,  at  $24.00 : .     2 .  30 

Waste,  one-third 80 

Labor 75 

Nails .15     $  9.35 

Hard  Pine  Upper  Floor,  per  s(juare  of  100  sq.  ft. — 

Stock    $6.00 

Waste,  one-third 2 .00 

Labor 2.25 

Nails _25    $10.50 

Quartered  Oak  Upper  Floor,  per  square  of  100  sq.  ft. — 

Stock $10.00 

Waste 3.30 

Labor 6 .  50 

Nails 25    $20.05 


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ESTIMATING  101 


Porch  or  Veranda  Floor,  per  square  of  100  sq.  ft. — 

Joists,  2  X  8-in.,  16  inches  on  centers ....  !S!2 .60 

Labor 1.00 

Hard  pine  flooring,  at  $55 , 5 .50 

Waste 1.80 

Labor 1.25 

Nails , 20    $12.35 


Second  Floor,  per  square  of  100  sq,  ft. — 

Joists,  2  X  10-in.,  16  inches  on  centers .$3  25 

Labor 1 .  50 

Bridging 50 

Furring 1 .  50 

Under-floor  stock 2 .30 

Waste,  one-third 80 

Labor 75 

Nails 15 

Upper-floor  stock 4 .  00 

Waste  1.30 

Labor 1 .  75 

Nails ,. 20    $18.00 

Third  Floor,  per  square  of  100  sq.  ft. — 

Joists,  2  X  S-in.,  16  inches  on  centers $  2.60 

Labor 1 .  50 

Under  floor 4.00 

Furring 1 .  50 

Bridging -.  .  .        .50    $10.10 

Shingled  Roof,  per  square  of  100  sq.  ft — 

Rafters,  2  X  7-in,  20  inches  on  centers $  2. 17 

Labor 2.25 

Matched  spruce  boarding 2.50 

Waste,  one-third 80 

Labor 1 .25 

Nails 20 

Shingles 4 .  00 

Labor .     3 .  25 

Nails 25    $16.67 


331 


102  ESTIMATING 


Tinned  Roof,  per  square  of  100  sq.  ft. — 

Rafters,  2  X  7-in.,  20  inches  on  centers $  2. 17 

Labor 1.50 

Matched  boarding,  as  above   4 .  75 

Paper 50 

Tinning 12.00    $20.92 

Wall  Frame  and  Boarding,  per  square  of  100  sq.  ft. — 

Studding,  2  X  4-in.,  16  inches  on  centers S  4.00 

Boarding 2 .  30 

Waste.. ^ 80 

Labor 1.00 

Nails    .20    8  8.30 

Inside  Studding,  per  square  of  100  sq.  ft. — 

Stock,  2x4-in.,  16  inches  on  centers $  1..30 

Waste,  one-half  stock .65 

Labor 1 .  50 

Nails 15 

Grounds  and  beads .40    $  4.00 

Clapboarding,  per  square  of  100  sq.  ft. — 

Clapboards,  80,  at  $.05  each $  4.00 

Labor 3 .  25 

Paper 50 

Nails    .20    $7.95 

Main  Cornice,  per  linear  foot — 

Gutter,  perft $     .12 

Upper  fascia 03 

Fillet 01 

Lower  fascia .04 

Planceer 08 

Bed-mould 02 

Frieze 06 

Architrave   moulding .04 

Brackets 25 

Labor 50 

Rough  furring .10    $  1 .25 

Piazza  Cornice,  per  linear  foot — 

Upper  fascia $   .  03 


Carried  forward  $  .  03 


832 


DETAIL  OF'GENEEAL'WINDOW-FRAMEJ' 

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104  ESTIMATING 


Brought  forward  $  .03 

Gutter 10 

Lower  fascia 03 

Fillet 01 

Planceer 08 

Bed-mouia 02 

Brackets 25 

Frieze 15 

Architrave  mould 03 

Soffit 05 

Inside  frieze 10 

Labor... 1.00 

Rough  furring -15     $  2.00 

Attic  Windows,  circular  top,  each — 

Frame $  6.00 

Sash 2.50 

Inside  finish 1 .  00 

Weights  and  cord 45 

Labor 1.25    $11 .20 

Second-Story  Windows,  3  ft.  0  in.  X  5  ft.,  each — 

Frame S  3 .  50 

Sashes,  17. V  .sq.  ft.,  at  $ .  20  per  sq.  ft $  3 .  50 

Blinds 1.00 

Blind  fasts 15 

Inside  finish 1.19 

Nails  and  screws 10 

Weights  and  cord 64 

Labor,  1  dav 3.25    $13.33 

Inside  Finish  for  Window,  as  above — 

Architrave,    21  ft.,  at  $.03-^  per  ft $  .73 

Back-band,  21  ft.,  at  $.03     "     "    63 

Beads,  17ft.,at$.02     "     "    ^M    $1.70 

30  per  cent  off .51 

$1.19 
Weights  and  Cord  for  Window,  as  above — 

Weights,  17^  ft.,21bs.per  ft.,  35  lbs.,  at  $.0U 

per  lb $     .44 

Cord,  20  ft.,  at  $.01  per  ft 20    $     .64 


334 


ESTIMATING  105 

Cost  of  Window,  2  ft.  6  in.  x  4  ft.  6  in.,  each- 
Frame §  3  50 

Window,  Hi  sq.ft.,  at  $.20  per  sq.  ft 2.25 

Blinds 75 

Blind  fastenings j5 

Screws  and  nails. 20 

Weight,  22Mbs.,  at  S.OU  per  lb 28 

Cord 15 

Inside  Casing,  18  ft.,  at  8.03^  per  ft 03 

Back-band,  18  ft.,  at  $.03  per  ft 54 

Stop-beads,  14  ft.,  at  $ .  02  per  ft 28 

Lal^oi- 3.25    $11 .88 

French  Windows,  4  ft.  6  in  X  7  ft.  6  in.,  each— 

Fraiiie §  5  00 

Sash,  4ft.  6  in.  X  7  ft.  G  in.,  .34  .sq.  ft.,  at  $.20  per 

sq-  ft 6.80 

Astragal 50 

Nails  and  screws 10 

Inside  finish ^ gg 

L'^^^or 4  §3     $18.24 

Window,  3  ft.  4  in.  X  5  ft.  G  in.  (oak  finish),  each- 
Frame  s  3  50 

Window,  18  sq.  ft.,  at  S .  20  per  sq.  ft 3 .  GO 

Blinds 1  00 

Blind  fasts 15 

Nails  and  screws 10 

^^'eights 70 

Finish  (oak) 2  64 

Labor,  Udays 4,88     31657 

Rear  Door,  2  ft.  10  in.  X  7  ft.  6  in.— 

Frame $4  00 

Door,21sq.  ft.,at$.25persq.ft 5.25 

Finish gj 

Labor 3  25 

^^^'^ 05        $13.46 


335 


106  ESTIMATING 


Front  Door,  3  ft.  3  in.  X  7  ft.  6  in.,  with  top  and  side  lights— 
Frame — 

Sill,  7  ft.,  at  S.  25  per  ft $1.75 

Jambs,  23  ft.,  at  $.07  per  ft 1.61 

Mullions  and  transom  bar,  20  ft.,  at  $.10.V 

perft 2.10 

Outside  casing,  23  ft.,  at  $.03.V  per  ft 81 

Mullion  casing,  20  ft.,  at  $.  O23V  per  ft 42 

Labor,  v  price  of  stock    3 .  32 

$10.01 
Z)oor,  3  ft,  3  in.  X  7  ft.  ()  in.— 

^1  sq.  ft.,  at$.25persq.  ft $5.25 

Side-light  panels,  6  ft.,  at  $ .  25  per  ft 1 .  50 

3  sash  rims,  at  $.50  each    1 .50 

Leaded  glass,  10|  sq.  ft.,  at  $2 . 50  per  sq.  ft.  .       27.00 

$35.25 

Inside  Finish — 

Stop-beads - $  -28 

Architrave,  24  ft.,  at  $ . 04^  per  ft 1 . 08 

Labor,  3  days 9-75 

$11.11 

Total  cost  of  front  tloor  and  frame    $56 .37 

Door,  2  ft.  8  in.  X  7  ft.  6  in.  (N.  C.  pine)— 

Stockdoor   $3.00 

Frame 1-25 

Threshold 15 

Nails 05 

Finish,  39.V  ft.,  at  $.04^  per  ft.  .... 1 .78 

Labor 3.25  $9.48 

Pair  of  Sliding  Doors,  0  ft.  X  8  ft.  (whitewood  and  birch)— 

Doors,  48  sq  ft.,  at  $ .  50  per  sq.  ft $24 .  00 

Architrave,  24  ft.,  bn-ch    2 .34 

24  ft.,  whitewood    1.05 

Jambs,  22  ft.,  birch 1 .82 

"       22  ft,  whitewood    85 

Grounds,  22  ft,  birch .  .50    

Carried  forward  $30 .  56 


336 


ESTBIATING 


107 


Brought  foncard  S30.56 

Grounds,  22  ft.,  whitewood 23 

Chafing  strip,  22  ft.,  birch 33 

22  ft.,  whitewood 15 

Astragal,  birch  and  whitewood    1 .50 

Sheathing  pockets,  96  ft.;  at  S4.75  per  square.        4 .  50 

Labor,  5 days' work    16.25        $53.52 

Schedule  of  Rooms,  and  Memoranda  from  which  Heating  Esti= 

mate  is  Made  Up 


First  Floor 
Rooms 

Size 

o 

>< 

n 
m 

Equals 

Size  of 
Register 

< 

128 

Feet  of  Tin 
Pipe,  includ- 
ing Elbows 

Living  Room . 

14x25x9 

3,150 

25 

2  9-in.  pipes 

2  9x12 

34 

Hall 

11x25x9 

Add 

40%  for 

space 

above, 

3,465 

25 
,25 

14-in.    " 

14x18 

154 
64 

'  12 

Parlor 

12x14x9 

1,512 

9-in.    " 

9X12 

14 

Dining  Room. 

12x14x9 

1,512 

25 

35 
35 
35 

9-in.    •• 

9x12 

64 

38 

16 

China  Closet. 

7x10x9 

•   •    ■    • 

7-in.    " 

7X10 

24 

Second  Floor 

8X10 

Bedroom  .... 

iixux<s| 

1,309 

7-in.    " 

38 
38 
38 
38 

38 

" 

llXl4x8i 

1,309 

7-in.    " 

8x10 

26 

'• 

11X14X8* 

1,309 

7-in.    '^ 

8x10 

40 

ii» 

11X14X81 

1,309|35 

^             1 

7-in.    " 

8x10 

40 

Alcove 

6X11X8* 

•   •    •    • 

7-in.    •' 

7x10 

38 

32 

Bathroom .... 

6X10X8^ 

•   •    •   • 

7-in.    " 

7X10 

38 

38 

Rear  Bedroom 

10x13x8* 

1,105 

35 

7-in.    " 

7x10 

38 

40 

Smoke  pipe,  22  ft.  — Heat-pipe  area,  714  sq.  in. — Cold-air  box, 
534  sq.  in.,  or  |  of  heat-pipe  area,-— Use  28-in.  firepot  furnace, 


337 


108 

ESTIMATING 

Locat 

ion  Sheet 

of  Electn 

c  Ou 

ticts 

Location 

Ceiling 

Bracket 

Sw. 

Total 
Outlets 

Total 
Lights 

Basement — 

Passage 

1 

1 

Furnace 

1 

1 

1 

Laundry 

1 

1 

1 

Furnace  Room 

2 

2 

2 

4 

1 

4 

5 

First  Floor — 

Entry 

1 

1 

1 

Pantry 

1 

1 

Kitchen 

2 

2 

5 

3 

Porch 

1 

2 

1 

China  Closet 

1 

1 

Dining  Room 

2 

3 

8 

Parlor 

2 

3 

10 

Hall 

1 

1 

Hall 

2 

3 

2 

Vestibule 

1 

1 

Porch 

1 

1 

Living  Room 

4 

2 

7 

13 

11 

11 

7 

29 

43 

Second  Floor — 

- 

Back  Hall 

1 

2 

3 

1 

Bedroom 

1 

1 

1 

Bath 

1 

1 

1 

Bedroom 

3 

3 

3 

(( 

3 

3 

3 

Alcove 

2 

2 

2 

Front  Hall 

2 

2 

4 

2 

Bedroom 

3 

3 

3 

(( 

3 

3 

3 

2 

17 

4 

23 

19 

Attic — 

Hall 

1 

1 

1 

Attic 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

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THE  STEEL  SQUARE 

INTRODUCTORY 

The  Standard  Steel  Square  has  a  blade  24  inches  long  and  2 
inches  wide,  and  a  tongue  from  14  to  IS  inches  long  and  U  inches  wide. 

The  blade  is  at  right  angles  to  the  tongue. 

The  face  of  the  square  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  It  is  always  stamped 
with  the  manufacturer's  name  and  number. 

The  reverse  is  the  back  (see  Fig.  2). 

The  longer  arm  is  the  blade;  the  shorter  arm,  the  tongue. 

In  the  center  of  tlie  tongue,  on  the  face  side,  will  be  found  two 
parallel  lines  divided  into  spaces  (see  Fig.  1);  this  is  the  octagon  scale. 

The  spaces  will  be  found  numbered  10,  20,  30,  40,  50,  60,. and  70, 
when  the  tongue  is  IS  inches  long. 

To  draw  an  octagon  of  8  inches  square,  draw  a  square  S  inches 
each  way,  and  draw  a  perpendicular  and  a  horizontal  line  through 
its  center. 

To  find  the  length  of  the  octagon  side,  place  one  point  of  a  com- 
pass on  any  of  the  main  divisions  of  the  scale,  and  the  other  point  of 
the  compass  on  the  eighth  subdivision;  then  step  this  length  off  on  each 
side  of  the  center  lines  on  the  side  of  the  square,  which  will  give  the 
points  from  which  to  draw  the  octagon  lines. 

The  diameter  of  the  octagon  must  equal  in  inches  the  number  of 
spaces  taken  from  the  square. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  tongue,  in  the  center,  will  be  found 
the  brace  rule  (see  Fig.  3).  The  fractions  denote  the  rise  and  run  of 
the  brace,  and  the  decimals  the  length.  For  example,  a  brace  of  36 
inches  run  and  36  inches  rise,  will  have  a  length  of  50.91  inches;  a 
brace  of  42  inches  nm  and  42  inches  rise,  .'svill  have  a  length  of  59.40 
inches;  etc. 

On  the  back  of  the  blade  (Fig.  4)  will  be  found  the  board  measure, 
where  eight  parallel  lines  running  along  the  length  of  the  blade  are 
sho\\Ti  and  divided  at  every  inch  by  cross-lines.  Under  12,  on  the 
outer  edge  of  the  blade,  will  be  found  the  various  lengths  of  the  boards, 
as  8,  9, 10, 11, 12,  etc.    For  example,  take  a  board  14  feet  long  and  9 


341 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


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o 
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lililililililililili 


842 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


zr  O) 


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343 


4: 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


Fig.  5.    Use  of  Steel  Square  to  Find  Miter  and  Side  of 
Pentagon. 


inches  wide.  To 
find  the  contents, 
look  under  12,  and 
find  14;  then  fol- 
low this  space  along 
to  the  cross-line  un- 
der 9,  the  width  of 
the  board ;  and  here 
is  found  10  feet  6 
inches,  denoting 
the  contents  of  a 
board  14  feet  long 
and  9  inches  wide. 
To  Find  the  Mi= 
ter  and  Length  of 
Side  for  any  Poly= 
gon,  with  the  Steel 


In  Fiff.  5 


Square. 

is  shown  a  pentagon  figure.  The  miters  of  the  pentagon  stand  at 
72  degrees  with  each  other,  and  are  found  by  dividing  3G0  by  5,  the 
number  of  sides  in  the  pentagon.  But  the  angle  when  applied  to  the 
square  to  obtain  the  miter,  is  only  one-half  of  72,  or  36 
degrees,  and  intersects  the  blade  at  8f  |,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5. 

By  squaring  up  from  G  on  the  tongue,  intersecting 
the  degree  line  at  a,  the 
center  a  is  determined 
either  for  the  inscribed 
or  the  circumscribed  di- 
ameter, the  radii  being 
a  h  and  a  c,  respec- 
tively. 

The  length  of  the 
sides  will  be  8|f  inches 
to  the  foot. 

If  the  length  of  the 
inscribed  diameter  be  8 
feet,  then  the  sides- would 

1       o  V  ^  o  9  <?    •      1  Fig.  6.    Use  of  Steel  Square  to  Find  Miter  and  Side  of 

be  8  X  8  If  inches.  *  Hexagon. 


344 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


5 


The  figures  to  use  for  other  polygons  are  as  follows : 


Triangle 

Square 

Hexagon 

Nonagon 

Decason 


20i| 
12 

7 

4.1 

"^8 


In  Fig.  6  the  same  process  is  used  in  finding  the 
miter  and  side  of  the  hexagon  polygon. 

To  find  the  degree  line,  360  is  divided  by  6,  the  num- 
ber of  sides,  as  follows: 

360  -^  6  =  60;  and 
60  -^2  =  30  degrees. 

Now,  from  12  on 
tongue,  draw  a  line 
making  an  angle  of  .30 
degrees  with  the  tongue. 
It  will  cut  the  blade  in 
7  as  sho^vn;  and  from  7 
to  m,  the  heel  of  the 
square,  will  be  the  length 
of  the  side.  From  6  on 
tongue,  erect  a  line  to 
cut  the  degree  line  in  c;  and  with  c  as  center,  describe  a  circle  having 
the  radius  of  c  7;  and  around  the  circle,  complete  the  hexagon  by 
taking  the  length  7  m  with  the  compass  for  each  side,  as  shown. 

In  Fig.  7  the  same  process  is  shown  applied  to  the  octagon.  The 
degree  line  in  all  the  polygons  is  found  by  dividing  360  by  the  number 
of  sides  in  the  figure : 

360  -h  8  =  45;  and  45  -f-  2  =  22^  degrees. 
This  gives  the  degree  line  for  the  octagon.    Complete  the  process  as . 
was  described  for  the  other  polygons. 

By  using  the  following  figures  for  the  various  polygons,  the  miter 
lines  may  be  found;  but  in  these  figures  no  account  is  taken  of  the 
relative  size  of  sides  to  the  foot  as  in  the  figures  precedino- : 

7  in.   and  4  in. 


Fig.  7. 


Use  of  Steel  Square  to  Find  Miter  and  Side 
of  Octagon. 


Triangle 
Pentagon 
Hexagon 
Heptagon 


11 
4 
12*^ 


8 


7" 


6 


345 


G 


THE  stp:el  square 


Octagon 


Nonagon 


17    in.  and  7  in. 

991  ,  i(         It.      g  " 

Decagon  0^  "  '    "     3 " 

The  miter  is  to  be  drawn  along  the  hne  of  the  first  cohnnn,  as  shown 

for  the  triangle  in 
Fig.  8,  and  for  the 
hexagon  in  Fig.  9. 
In  Fig.  10  is 
shown  a  diagram 
for  finding  degrees 
on  the  square.  For 
example,  if  a  pitch 
of  35  degrees  is  re- 

71^^  y^. — V  X^^ quired,  use  83I  on 

tongue  and  12  on 
blade ;  if  45  degrees, 
use    12  on    tongue 


Fig.  8.    Use  of  Square  to  Find  Miter  of  Equilateral  Triangle. 


and    12    on  blade; 
etc. 

In  Fis:.  1 1  is  shown  the  relative  length  of  run  for  a  rafter  and  a 
hip,  the  rafter  being  12  inches  and  the  hip  17  inches.  The  reason,  as 
shown  in  this  diagram,  why  1 7  is 
taken  for  the  run  of  the  hip,  in- 
stead of  12  as  for  the  common 
rafter,  is  that  the  seats  of  the  com- 
mon rafter  and  hip  do  not  run 
parallel  with  each  other,  but  di- 
verge in  roofs  of  equal  pitch  at  an 
angle  of  45  degrees;  therefore,  17 
inches  taken  on  the  run  of  the  hip 
is  equal  to  only  12  inches  when 
taken  on  that  of  the  common 
rafter,  as  shown  by  the  dotted 
line  from  heel  to  heel  of  the  two 
squares  in  Fig.  1 1 . 

In  Fig.  12  is  shown  how 
other  figures  on  the  square  may  be 
found  for  corners  that  deviate  from  the  45  degrees.    It  is  shown  that 


Fig.  9.    Use  of  Square  to  Find  Miter  of 
Hexagon. 


346 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


for  a  pentagon,  which  makes  a  36-degree  angle  with  the  plate,  the 
fioure  to  be  used 
on  the  square  for 
run  is  14|  inches; 
for  a  hexagon, 
which  makes  a 
30-clegree  angle 
with  the  plate, 
the  figure  will  be 
13|  inches;  and 
for  an  octagon, 
which  makes  an 
angle  of  22h  de- 
grees with  the 
plate,  the  figure 
to  use  on  the 
square  for  run 
of  hip  to  corre-  r 
spond  to  the  run 
of    the  common 


Fig.  10.    Diagram  for  Finding  Pitches  of  Various  Degrees 
by  Means  of  the  Steel  Square. 


rafters,  will  be  13  inches.    It  will  be  observed  that  the  height  in  each 

case  is  9  inches. 

Fig.  13  illustrates  a 
method  of  finding  the 
relative  height  of  a  hip 
or  valley  per  foot  run  to 
that  of  the  common  raf- 
ter. The  square  is  shown 
placed  with  1 2  on  blade 
and  9  on  tongue  for  the 
common  rafter ;  a  n  d 
shows  that  for  the  hip  the 
rise  is  only  6/,  inches. 

The  Steel  Square  as 
Applied  in  Roof  Fram= 
ing.  Roof  framing  at 
present  is  as  simple  as  it 

possibly  can  be,  so  that  any  attempt  at  a  new  method  would  be  super- 


Fig.  11.    Square  Applied  to  Determine  Relative 
Length  of  Run  for  Rafter  and  Hip. 


347 


THE  step:l  square 


fluoiis.  There  may,  liowever,  be  a  certain  way  of  presenting  the  sub- 
ject that  will  carry  with  it  almost  the  weight  assigned  to  a  new  theory, 
making  what  is  already  simple  still  more  simple. 

The  steel  square  is  a  mighty  factor  in  roof  framing,  and  without 
doubt  the  greatest  tool  in  practical  potency  that  ever  was  invented 


Pig.  13.    Use  of  Square  to  Determine  Length  of  Run  for  Rafters  on  Comers 

Other  tliau  4.5°. 

for  the  carpenter.  With  its  use  the  lengths  and  bevels  of  every  piece 
of  timber  that  goes  into  the  construction  of  the  most  intricate  design 
of  roof,  can  easily  be  obtained,  and  that  with  but  very  little  knowledge 
of  lines. 

In  roofs  of  equal  pitch,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  14,  thc-steel  square 
is  all  that  is  required  if  one  properly  understands  how  to  handle  it. 


348 


TIIK  STEEF.  SQUARE 


9 


What  is  meant  by  a  pitch  of  a  roof,  is  the  number  of  inches  it 
rises  to  the  foot  of  run. 

In  Fig.  15  is  shown   tlie  steel   square  with   figiu'es  representing 


Fig.  13.    Method  of  Finding  Relative  Height  of  Hip  or  Valley  per  Foot  of  Run 

to  that  of  Common  Raf  tei*. 

the  various  pitches  to  the  foot  of  run.  For  the  i-pitch  roof,  the  figures 
as  shown,  from  12  on  tongue  to  12  on  blade,  are  those  to  be  used  on 
the  steel  square  for  the  common  rafter;  and  for  f  pitch,  the  figures  to 
be  used  on  the  square  will  be  12  and  9,  as  shown. 


rn     Ridge 

Pi 

l/Valle\N 
rShoTt 
AValley      \| 


K 


N 


^       a    Plate        ri  r> 


Fig.  14.    Diagram  to  Illustrate  Use  of  Steel  Square  In  Laying  Out  Timbers 

of  Roofs  of  Equal  Pitch. 

To  understand  this  figure,  it  is  necessary  only  to  keep  in  mind 
that  the  pitch  of  a  roof  is  reckoned  from  the  span.  Since  the  run  iu  each 
pitch  as  shown  is  12  inches,  the  span  is  two  times  12  inches,  which 


349 


10 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


equals  24  inches;  hence,  12  on  bhide  to  represent  the  foot  run,  and  12 
on  tongue  to  represent  the  rise  over  2  the  span,  will  be  the  figures  on 
the  square  for  a  J-pitch  roof. 

For  the  I  pitch,  the  figures  are  shown  to  be  12  on  tongue  and  9 
on  blade,  9  being  I  of  the  span,  24  inches. 

The  same  rule  applies  to  all  the  pitches.  The  ^  pitch  is  shown 
to  rise  4  inches  to  the  foot  of  run,  because  4  inches  is  I  of  the  span,  24 
inches,  the  3-  pitch  is  shown  to  rise  8  inches  to  the  foot  of  run,  because 

8  inches  is  ^  of  the  span,  24  inches;  etc. 

The  roof  referred  to  in  Figs.  16  and  17  is  to 
rise  9  inches  to  the  foot  of  run;  it  is  therefore  a 
f -pitch  roof.  For  all  the  common  rafters,  the  fig- 
ures to  be  used  on  the  square  will  be  12  on  blade 
to  represent' the  run,  and  9  on  tongue  to  represent 
the  rise  to  the  foot  of  run ;  and  for  all  the  hips 
and  valleys,  17  on  blade  to  represent  the  run,  and 

9  on  tongue  to  represent  the  rise  of  the  roof  to  the 
foot  of  run. 

Why  17  represents  the  run  for  all  the  hips 
and  valleys,  will  be  understood  by  examining 
Fig.  19,  in  which  17  is  shown  to  be  the  diag- 
onal of  a  foot  square. 

In  equal-pitch  roofs  the 
corners  are  square,  and  the 
plan  of  the  hip  or  valley  will 
always  be  a  diagonal  of  a 
square  corner  as  shown  at  1,  2, 
3,  and  5  in  Fig.  14. 

In  Fig.  18 
are  shown  ^ 
pitch,  s  pitch 
and  i  pitch  over 
a  square  corner. 

The  figures  to  be  used  on  the  square  for  the  hip,  will  be  17  for 
run  in  each  case.  For  the  ^  pitch,  the  figures  to  be  used  would  be 
17  inches  run  and  4  inches  rise,  to  correspond  with  the  12  inches  run 
and  4  inches  rise  of  the  common  rafter.  For  the  |  pitch,  the  figures 
to  be,  used  for  hip  would  be  17  inches  run  and  9  inches  rise,  to  corre- 


CVJ 

"251 

CM 
"2 
"551 


"Jo 


CM 


V     -00 


.A? 


I        I        I 


L^lTlO   19    18    |7    16   15   H   13   \Z    |l 


X 
12 
i 
24 


CM 


2  Pitch 
II 

5 

3 


1 

SA 
X 
A 


Fig.  15.    Steel  Square  Giviug  Various  Pitches  to  Foot  of  Kuu. 


350 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


11 


spond  with  the  12  inches  run  and  9  inches  rise  of  the  common  rafter; 
and  for  the  2  pitch,  the  figiu'es  to  be  used  on  the  square  will  be  17 
inches  run  and  12  inches  rise,  to  correspond  with  the  12  inches  run 
and  12  inches  rise  of  the  common  rafter. 

It  will  be  observed  from  above,  that  in  all  cases  where  the  plan 
of  the  hip  or  valley  is  a  diagonal  of  a  square,  the  figures  to  be  used  on 

,  ,     ,     ^   ,  Top    cut  for    13ft.  6in. 

x^^Heel     Cut    Co-mrr>or.  •  Rafter     ' 

Plumb  Cut 


Fig.  16.    Method  of  Layin^  Out  Common  Rafters  of  a  J^-Pitch  Roof. 

the  square  for  run  will  be  17  inches;  and  for  the  rise,  whatever  the  roof 
rises  to  the  foot  of  run.  It  should  also  be  remembered  that  this  is  the 
condition  in  all  roofs  of  equal  pitch,  where  the  angle  of  the  hip  or 
valley  is  a  45-degree  angle,  or,  in  other  words,  where  we  have  the 
diagonal  of  a  square. 

It  has  been  shown  in  Fig.  12  how  other  figures  for  other  plan 
angles  may  be  found;  and  that  in  each  case  the  figures  for  rim  vary 


Heel  cut  of  hip 


Top  cut  for  i3ft.ein.  run  of  hip 


Top  cut  for  13  ft.  run  of  hip 

Fig.  17.    Method  of  Laying  Out  Hips  and  Valleys  of  a  %-Pitch  Roof. 

according  to  the  plan  angle  of  the  hip  or  \alley,  while  the  figure  for  the 
height  in  each  case  is  similar. 

In  Fig.  14  are  shown  a  variety  of  runs  for  common  rafters,  but 
all  have  the  same  pitch ;  they  rise  9  inches  to  the  foot  of  run.  The  main 


351 


12 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


Pitch 


roof  is  shown  to  have  a  span  of  27  feet,  which  makes  the  run  of  the 
common  rafter  13  feet  0  inclies.  The  run  of  the  front  wing  is  shown 
to  be  10  feet  4  inches;  and  the  run  of  the  small  gable  at  the  left  corner 
of  the  front,  is  shown  to  be  8  feet. 

Tiie  diversity  exhibited  in  the  runs,  and  especially  the  fractional 
part  of  a  foot  shown  in  two  of  them,  will  afford  an  opportunity  to  treat 
of  the  main  difficulties  in  laying  out  roof  timbers  in  roofs  of  ecjual 
pitch.    Let  it  be  determined  to  have  a  rise  of  9  inches  to  the  foot  of 

run;  and  in  this  connec- 
tion it  may  be  well  to  re- 
member that  the  propor- 
tional rise  to  the  foot  run 
for  roofs  of  equal  pitch 
makes  not  the  least  dif- 
ference in  the  method  of 
treatment. 

To  lay  out  the  common 
rafters  for  the  main  roof, 
which  has  a  run  of  13  feet 
G  inches,pracced  as  shown 
in  Fig.  IC. 

Take  12  on  the  blade 
and  9  on  the  tongue,  and 
step  13  times  along  the 
rafter  timber.  This  will 
give  the  length  of  rafter 
for  13  feet  of  run.  In 
this  example,  however, 
there  is  another  6  inches 
of  run  to  cover.  For  this  additional  length,  take  6  inches  on  the  blade 
(it  being  ;V  a  foot  run)  for  run,  and  take  \  of  9  on  the  tongue  (which  is 
U  inches),  and  step  one  time.  This,  in  addition  to  what  has  already 
been  found  by  stepping  13  times  with  12  and  9,  will  give  the  full  length 

of  the  rafter. 

The  scjuare  with  12  on  blade  and  9  on  tongue  will  give  the  heel 

and  plumb  cuts. 

Another  method  of  finding  the  length  of  rafter  for  the  G  inches 

is  shown  in  Fig.  16,  where  the  square  is  shown  applied  to  the  rafter 


Fig.  18.    Method  of  Laying  Out  Hips  and  Rafters  for 
Roofs  of  Various  Pitches  over  Square  Corner. 


352 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE  13 


timber  for  the  plumb  cut.  Square  No.  1  is  shown  appHed  with  12  on 
blade  and  9  on  tongue  for  the  length  of  the  13  feet.  Square  from  this 
cut,  measure  6  inches,  the  additional  inches  in  the  run;  and  to  this 
point  move  the  square,  holding  it  on  the  side  of  the  rafter  timber 
with  12  on  blade  and  0  on  tongue,  as  for  a  full  foot  run. 

It  will  be  observed  that  this  method  is  easily  adapted  to  find  any 
fractional  part  of  a  foot  in  the  length  of  rafters. 

In  the  front  gable,  Fig.  14,  the  fractional  part  of  a  foot  is  4  inches 
to  be  added  to  10  feet  of  run;  therefore,  in  that  case,  the  line  shown 
measured  to  6  inches  in  Fig.  16  would  measure  only  4  inches  for  the 
front  gable. 

Heel  Cut  of  Common  Rafter.  In  Fig.  1(3  is  also  shown  a  method 
to  lay  out  the  heel  cut  of  a  common  rafter.  The  square  is  shown 
applied  ^^^th  12  on  blade  and  9  on  tongue;  and  from  where  the  12  on 
the  square  intersects  the  edge  of  the  rafter  timber,  a  line  is  drawn 
square  to  the  blade  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line  from  12  to  a.  Then 
the  thickness  of  the  part  of  the  rafter  that  is  to  project  beyond  the 
plate  to  hold  the  cornice,  is  gauged  to  intersect  the  dotted  line  at  a; 
and  from  a,  the  heel  cut  is  drawn  with  the  square  having  12  on  blade 
and  9  on  tongue,  marking  along  the  blade  for  the  cut. 

The  common  rafter  for  the  front  wing,  which  is  shown  to  have 
a  run  of  10  feet  4  inches,  is  laid  out  precisely  the  same,  except  that 
for  this  rafter  the  square  with  12  on  blade  and  9  on  tongue  will  have 
to  be  stepped  along  the  rafter  timber  only  10  times  for  the  10  feet  of 
run;  and  for  the  fractional  part  of  a  foot  (4  inches)  which  is  in  the  run, 
either  of  the  two  methods  already  shown  for  the  main  rafter  mav 
be  used. 

The  proportional  figures  to  be  used  on  the  square  for  the  4  inches 
will  be  4  on  blade  and  2\  on  tongue;  and  if  the  second  method  is  used, 
make  the  addition  to  the  length  of  rafter  for  10  feet,  by  drawing  a 
line  4  inches  square  from  the  tongue  of  square  No.  1  (see  Fig.  16), 
instead  of  6  inches  as  there  shown  for  the  main  rafter. 

Hips.  Three  of  the  hips  are  shown  in  Fig.  14  to  extend  from 
the  plate  to  the  ridge-pole;  they  are  marked  in  the  figure  as  1,  2,  and 
3  respectively,  and  are  shown  in  |)lan  to  be  diagonals  of  a  square- 
measuring  13  feet  6  inches  by  13  feet  6  inches;  they  make  an  angle, 
therefore,  of  45  degrees  with  the  plate. 


353 


) 


14 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


In  Fig.  18  it  has  been  shown  that  a  hip  standing  at  an  angle  of 
45  degrees  with  the  plate  will  have  a  run  of  17  inches  for  every  foot 
run  of  the  common  rafter.  Therefore,  to  lay  out  the  hips,  the  figures 
on  the  square  will  be  17  for  run  and  9  for  rise;  and  by  stepping  13 
times  along  the  hip  rafter  timber,  the  length  of  hip  for  13  feet  of  run 
is  obtained.  The  length  for  the  additional  6  inches  in  the  run  may 
be  found  by  squaring  a  distance  of  82-  inches,  as  shown  in  Fig.  17, 

from  the  tongue  of  the  square,  and 
moving  square  No.  1  along  the  edge 
of  the  timber,  holding  the  blade  on 
17  and  tongue  on  9,  and  marking 
the  plumb  cut  where  the  dotted  line 
is  shown. 

In  Fig.  18  is  shown  how  to  find  the 
relative  run  length  of  a  portion  of  a 
hip  to  correspond  to  that  of  a  frac- 
tional part  of  a  foot  in  the  length 
of  the  common  rafter.  From  12 
inches,  measure  along  the  run  of 
the  common  rafter  G  inches,  and 
drop  a  line  to  cut  the  diagonal  line 
From  m  to  a,  along  the  diagonal  line,  will  be  the  relative  run 


12 

^ 

/ 

cu 

/V2' 

f 

Oj 

/ 

e 

6 

a. 

Fig 


19.     Dinsvain    Sliowint?   Rclntive 
Leiij^tlis  of    K)in  for  Hips  jiud 
Common  Riifters  in  Kqual- 
•  Pilch  Roofs. 


m  m. 


length  of  the  part  of  hip  to  correspond  with  6  inches  run  of  the  common 
rafter,  and  it  measures  8  V  inches. 

The  same  results  may  be  obtained  by  the  following  method   of 


figuring: 


As  12 :17 
G 


G 


12)102 
8 


G  =  8^- 
In  Fig.  19  is  shown  a  12-inch  square, 
the  diagonal  vi  being  17  inches.  By 
drawing  lines  from  the  base  a  b  to  cut  the 
diagonal  line,  the  part  of  the  hip  to  corre- 
spond to  that  of  the  common  rafter  will  be 
indicated  on  the  line  17.  In  this  figure 
it  is  shown  that  a  G-inch  run  on  a  h,  which  represents  the  run  of  a 
foot  of  a  common  rafter,   will  have  a  corresponding  length   of  80 


£1  -^ 


FIr.  20.    Mftliod  of  Determining 

Run  of  Viilley  for  Ailclitioniil 

Run  in  ("oi union  Rafter. 


354 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


15 


inches  run  on  the  Hne  17,  which  represents  the  plan  hne  of  the  hip  or 
valley  in  all  equal-pitch  roofs. 

In  the  front  gable,  Fig.  14,  it  is  shown  that  the  run  of  the  common 
rafter  is  10  feet  4  inches.    To  find  the  length  of  the  common  rafter, 


Fig.  21.    Corner  of  S(iuare  Building,  Show- 
ing Plan  Lines  of  Plates  and  Hip. 


Fig.  22.    Corner  of  Square  Building,  Show- 
ing Plan  Lines  of  Plates  and  Valley. 


take  12  on  blade  and  9  on  tongue,  and  step  10  times  along  the  rafter 
timber;  and  for  the  fractional  part  of  a  foot  (4  inches),  proceed  as  was 
shown  in  Fig.  16  for  the  rafter  of  the  main  roof;  but  in  this  case  measure 
out  square  to  the  tongue  of  square  No.  1,  4  inches  instead  of  6  inches. 
The  additional  length  for  the  fractional  4  inches  run  can  also  be 
found  by  taking  4  inches  on  blade  and  3  inches  on  tongue  of  square, 
and  stepping  one  time;  this,  in  addition  to  the  length  obtained  by 


Heel  cut  of  Valley 


Fig.  23.    Use  of  Square  to  Determine  Heel  Cut  of  Valley. 

stepping  10  times  along  the  rafter  timber  with  12  on  blade  and  9  on 
tongue,  will  give  the  full  length  of  the  rafter  for  a  run  of  10  feet  4  inches. 
In  the  intersection  of  this  roof  with  the  main  roof,  there  are  shown 
to  be  two  valleys  of  different  lengths.  The  long  one  extends  from  the 
plate  at  n  (Fig.  14)  to  the  ridge  of  the  main  roof  at  m;  it  has  therefore 


355 


X 


16 


THE   STEEL  SQUAl^E 


a  run  of  13  feet  G  inches.  For  the  length,  proceed  as  for  the  hips,  by 
taking  17  on  blade  of  the  square  and  9  on  tongue,  and  stepping  13 
times  for  the  length  of  the  13  feet;  and  for  the  fractional  C  inches, 
proceed  precisely  as  shown  in  Fig.  17  for  the  hip,  by  squaring  out  from 
the  tongue  of  square  No.  1,  8->  inches;  this,  in  addition  to  the  length 
obtained  for  the  13  feet,  will  give  the  full  length  of  the  long  valley  n  m. 
The  length  of  the  short  valley  a  c,  as  shown,  extends  over  the 
run  of  10  feet  4  inches,  and  butts  against  the  side  of  the  long  valley  at  c. 
By  taking  1 7  on  blade  and  9  on  tongue,  and  stepping  along  the  rafter 
timber  10  times,  the  length  for  the  10  feet  is  found;  and  for  the  4 

inches,  measure  5| 
inches  square  from 
the  tongue  of 
square  No.  1,  in 
the  manner  shown 
in  Fig.  17,  where 
the    8A    inches     is 


-  /Bevel  to  fit  hips 
"•^a.ga.in3t   a  deep 


Fig.  34. 


Steel  Square  Applied  to  Finding  Bevel  for  Fitting 
Top  of  Hip  or  Valley  to  Kidge. 


roofer  Tidc^eboard^hown    added     for 

the  6  inches  addi- 
tional   run    of    the 
•main    roof   for  the 
hips. 

The  length  5§  is 
found  as  shown  in 
Fig.  20,  by  meas- 
uring 4  inches  from 
a  to  m  along  the  run 
of  common  rafter  for  one  foot.  Upon  //i  erect  a  line  to  cut  the  seat  of 
the  valley  at  c;  from  c  to  a  will  be  the  run  of  the  valley  to  correspond 
with  4  inches  run  of  the  common  rafter,  and  it  will  measure  5|  inches. 
How  to  Treat  the  Heel  Cut  of  Hips  and  Valleys.  Having  found 
the  lengths  of  the  hips  and  valleys  to  correspond  to  the  common  rafters, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  find  also  the  thickness  of  each  above  the  plate 
to  correspond  to  the  thickness  the  common  rafter  will  be  above  the 
plate. 

In  Fig.  21  is  shown  a  corner  of  a  square  building,  showing  the 
plates  and  the  plan  lines  of  a  hip.  The  length  of  the  hip,  as  already 
found,  will  cover  the  span  from  the  ridge  to  the  corner  2;  but  the  sides 


356 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


17 


of  the  hip  intersect  the  plates  at  3  and  3  respectively;  therefore  the 
distance  from  2  to  1,  as  shown  in  this  diagram,  is  measured  backwards 
from  a  to  1  in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  17;  then  a  plumb  line  is  drawn 
through  1  to  m,  parallel  to  the  plumb  cut  a-17.  From  m  to  o  on  this 
line,  measure  the  same  thickness  as  that  of  the  common  rafter;  and 
through  o  draw  the  heel  cut  to  a  as  shown. 

In  like  manner  the  thickness  of  the  valley  above  the  plate  is  fountl ; 
but  as  the  valley  a.s  shown  in  the  plan  figure,  Fig.  22,  projects  bevond 
point  2  before  it  intersects  the  outside  of  the  plates,  the  distance  from 
2  to  1  in  the  case  of  the  valley  will  have  to  be  measured  outwards  from 
2,  as  shown  from 
2tol  in  Fig.  23; 
and  at  the  point 
thus  found  the 
thickness  of  the 
valley  is  to  be 
measured  to  cor- 
respond  with 
that  of  the  com- 
mon rafter  as 
shown  at  m  n. 

In  Fig.  24  is 
shown  the  steel 
square  applied  to 
a  hip  or  valley 
timber  to  cut  the 
bevel    that    will 


Bevel  to  fit  bacK 


'  -I     of  jacks   against 
hip  or  valley 


Fig.  25. 


Steel  Square  Applied  to  Jack  Rafter  to  Find  Bevel  for 
Fitting  against  Side  of  Hip  or  Valley. 


fit  the  top  end  against  the  ridge.  The  figures  on  the  square  are  17 
and  19j.  The  17  represents  the  length  of  the  plan  line  of  the  hip 
or  valley  for  a  foot  of  run,  which,  as  was  shown  in  previous  figures, 
will  always  be  17  inches  in  roofs  of  equal  pitch,  where  the  plan  lines 
stand  at  45  degrees  to  the  plates  and  square  to  each  other. 

The  19j  taken  on  the  blade  represents  the  actual  length  of  a  hip 
or  valley  that  will  span  over  a  run  of  17  inches.  The  bevel  is  marked 
along  the  blade. 

The  cut  across  the  back  of  the  short  valley  to  fit  it  against  the 
side  of  the  long  valley,  will  be  a  square  cut  owing  to  the  two  plan  lines 
being  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 


357 


r^ 


18  THE   STEEL  SQUARE 


8 


In  Fig.  25  is  shown  the  steel  square  applied  to  a  jack  rafter  to 
cut  the  back  bevel,  to  fit  it  against  the  side  of  a  hip  or  valley.  The 
figures  on  the  square  are  12  on  tongue  and  15  on  blade,  the  12  repre- 
senting a  foot  run  of  a  common  rafter,  and  the  15  the  length  of  a 
rafter  that  will  span  over  a  foot  run;  marking  along  the 
blade  will  give  the  bevel. 

The  rule  in  every  case  to  find  the  back  bevel  for  jacks  in 
roofs  of  equal  pitch,  is  to  take  12  on  the  tongue  to  represent 
the  foot  run,  and  the  length  of  the  rafter  for  a  foot  of  run  on 
the  blade,  marking  along  the  blade  in  each  case  for  the 
bevel. 

In  a  ^-pitch  roof,  which  is  the 
most  common  in  all  parts  of  the 
country,  the  length  of  rafter  for  a 
foot  of  run  will  be  1 7  inches ;  hence  '^  . .  ^"f  °^  .^'^I^®'' 

Fig.  26.    Finding  Length  to  Shorten 
it  will  be  well    to  remember   that  12  Rafters  fm-^  Jacks  per  Foot 

on  tongue  and  17  on  blade,  marking 

along  the  blade,  will  give  the  bevel  to  fit  a  jack  against  a  hip  or  a 

valley  in  a  ^Vpitch  roof. 

In  a  roof  having  a  rise  of  9  inches  to  the  foot  of  run,  such  as  the 
one  under  consideration ,  the  length  of  rafter  for  one  foot  of  run  will 
be  15  inches.  The  square  as  shown  in  Fig.  25,  with  12  on  tongue  and 
15  on  blade,  will  give  the  bevel  by  marking  along  the  blade. 

To  find  the  length  of  a  rafter  for  a  foot  of  run  for  any  other  pitch, 
place  the  two-foot  rule  diagonally  from  12  on  the  blade  of  the  square 
to  the  figure  on  tongue  representing  the  rise  of  the  roof  to  the  foot  of 

run ;  the  rule  will  give  the  length  of  the 
rafter  that  will  span  over  one  foot  of 
run. 

The  length  of  rafter  for  a  foot  of 
run  will  also  determine  the  difi"erence 
in  lengths  of  jacks.  For  example,  if  a 
roof  rises  12  inches  to  one  foot  of  run, 

Fig.  27.    Finding  Length  of  Jack  .  »^  ...  ,        ,  <•  i 

Kafier  in  }4-Pitch  Koof.  tile  ratter  ovcr  this  span  has  been  round 

to  be  17  inches;  this,  therefore,  is  the 
number  of  inches  each  jack  is  shortened  in  one  foot  of  run.  If  the 
rise  of  the  roof  is  S  inches  to  the  foot  of  run,  the  length  of  the  rafter  is 
found  for  one  foot  of  run,  by  placing  the  rule  diagonally  from  12  on 


358 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


19 


Fig.  28.    Findiua;  Length  of  Jack 
Rafter  in  ;"s-Pitcii  Roof. 


tongue  to  8  on  blade,  which  gives  142-  inches,  as  shown  in  P^ig.  2G. 
Tliis,  therefore,  will  be  the  number  of  inches  the  jacks  are  to  be 
shortened  in  a  roof  rising  8  inches  to  the  foot  of  run.  If  the  jacks  are 
placed  24  inches  from  center  to  center,  then  multiply  14^^  by  2  =  29 
inches. 

In  Fig.  27  is  shown  how  to  find 
the  length  with  the  steel  square.  The 
square  is  placed  on  the  jack  timber 
rafter  with  the  figures  that  have  been 
used  to  cut  the  common  rafter.  In 
Fig.  27,  12  on  blade  and  12  on  tongue 
were  the  figures  used  to  cut  the  com- 
mon  rafter,    the   roof   being  ^  pitch, 

ri.sing  12  inches  to  the  foot  of  run.  In  the  diagram  it  is  shown  how 
to  find  the  length  of  a  jack  rafter  if  placed  16  inches  from  center  to 
center.  The  method  is  to  move  the  square  as  shown  along  the  line  of 
the  blade  until  the  blade  measures  16  inches;  the  tongue  then  would  be 
as  shown  from  w  to  m,  and  the  length  of  the  jack  would  be  from  12  on 
blade  to  m  on  tongue,  on  the  edge  of  the  jack  rafter  timber  as  shown. 

This  latter  method  becomes  convenient  when  the  space  between 
jacks  h  less  than  18  inches;  but  if  used  when  the  space  is  more  than 


nn  Ridge 


Plate 


Fig.  29.    Method  of  Determining  Length  of  Jacks  Between  Hips  and  Valleys; 
also  Bevels  for  Jacks,  Hips,  and  Valleys. 

18  inches  it  will  become  necessary  to  use  two  squares;  otherwise  the 
tongue  as  shown  at  m  would  not  reach  the  edge  of  the  timber. 

In  Fig.  28  the  same  method  is-  shown  for  finding  the  length  of  a 
jack  rafter  for  a  roof  rising  9  inches  to  the  foot  of  run,  with  the  jacks 
placed  18  inches  center  to  center.  The  square  in  this  diagram  is 
shown  placed  on  the  jack  rafter  timber  with  12  on  blade  and  9  on 


359 


20 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


tongue;  then  it  is  moved  forward  along  the  Hne  of  the  blade  to  w. 
The  blade,  when  in  this  latter  position,  will  measure  18  inches.  The 
tongue  will  meet  the  edge  of  the  timber  at  m,  and  the  distance  from 
w  on  tongue  to  12  on  blade  will  indicate  the  length  of  a  jack,  or,  in 
other  words,  will  show  the  length  each  jack  is  shortened  when  placed 


Miter  Bevel  for  Boards 


Bevel    to_  cut  the  Bo^rd     Back   B#vel  for  Jacks 


Fig.  30.    Method  of  Finding  Bevels  for  All  Timbers  in  Roofs  of  Equal  Pitch. 

IS  inches  between  centers  in  a  roof  having  a  pitch  of  9  inches  to  the 
foot  of  run. 

When  jacks  are  placed  between  hips  and  valleys  as  shown  at 
1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  in  Fig.  14,  a  better  method  of  treatment  is  shown  in 
Fig.  29,  where  the  slope  of  the  roof  is  projected  into  the  horizontal 
plane.  The  distance  from  the  plate  in  this  figure  to  the  ridge  m,  equals 
the  length  of  the  common  rafter  for  the  main  roof.  On  the  plate  ann 
is  made  equal  to  a  n  n  in  Fig.  14.  By  drawing  a  figure  like  this  to  a 
scale  of  one  inch  to  one  foot,  the  length  of  all  the  jacks  can  be  measured 


360 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


21 


lide  cut  of  hip 
ainst  the 
ridqe  board 


and  also  the  lengths  of  the  hip  and  the  two  valleys.  It  also  gives  the 
bevels  for  the  jacks,  as  well  as  the  bevel  to  fit  the  hip  and  valley  against 
the  ridge;  but  this  last  bevel  must  be  applied  to  the  hip  and  valley 
when  backed. 

It  has  been  shown  before,  that  the  figures  to  be  used  on  the 
square  for  this  bevel  when  the  timber  is  left  square  on  back  as  is  the 
custom  in  construction,  are  the 
length  of  a  foot  run  of  a  hip  or  val- 
ley, which  is  17,  on  tongue,  and  the 
length  of  a  hip  or  valley  that  will 
span  over  17  inches  run,  on  blade — 
the  blade  giving  the  bevel. 

Fig.  30  contains  all  the  bevels  or 
cuts  that  have  been  treated  upon  so 
far,  and,  if  correctly  understood,  will  enable  any  one  to  frame  any 
roof  of  equal  pitch.  In  this  figure  it  is  shown  that  12  inches  run  and 
9  inches  rise  will  give  bevels  1  and  2,  which  are  the  plumb  and  heel 
cuts  of  rafters  of  a  roof  rising  9  inches  to  the  foot  of  run.  By  taking 
these  figures,  therefore,  on  the  square,  9  inches  on  the  tongue  and  12 
inches  on  the  blade,  marking  along  the  tongue  will  give  the  plumb  cut, 
and  marking  along  the  blade  will  give  the  heel  cut. 

Bevels  3  and  4  are  the  plumb  and  heel  cuts  for  the  hip,  and  are 
shown  to  have  the  length  of  the  seat  of  hip  for  one  foot  run,  which  is 
17  inches.  By  taking  17  inches,  therefore,  on  the  blade,  and  9  inches 
on  the  tongue,  marking  along  the  tongue  for  the  plumb  cut,  and  along 


Fig.  31.    Method  of  Fiuding  Bevel  .5,  Fig. 
30,  for  Fitting  Hip  or  Valley  Against 
Ridge  when  not  Backed. 


Face  cut  ot 
TOOf  bo&rd 


BacK  bevel 
for  jacKs 


Miter  cut  for  too*  board 


Fig.  33.    Method  of  Finding  Back  Bevel  6, 

Fig.  30,  for  Jack  Rafter.s,  and  Bevel 

7,  for  Roof- Board. 


Fiu 


Determining  Miter  Cut  for  Roof- 
Board. 


the  blade  for  the  heel  cut,  the  plumb  and  heel  cuts  are  found.  Bevel 
5,  which  is  to  fit  the  hip  or  valley  against  the  ridge  when  not  backed, 
is  shown  from  o  w,  the  length  of  the  hip  for  one  foot  of  run,  which  is 
19|  inches,  and  from  o  s,  which  always  in  roofs  of  equal  pitch  will 
be  17  inches  and  equal  in  length  to  the  seat  of  a  hip  or  valley  for  one 
foot  of  run. 


361 


90 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


iffures 


Laying  Out  Timbers  of  One-half  Gable  of  %-Pitch  Roof. 


These  figures,  therefore,  taken  on  the  square,  19^  on  the  blade, 
and  17  on  the  tongue,  will  give  the  bevel  by  marking  along  the  blade 
as  shown  in  Fig.  31,  where  the  square  is  shown  applied  to  the  hip 
timber  with  19^  on  blade  and  17  on  tongue, 
the  blade  showing  the  cut. 

Bevels  6   and  7  in  Fig.  30  are  shown 
formed  of  the  length  of  the  rafter  for  one  foot 
of  run,  which  is  15  inches,  and  the  run  of  the 
rafter,  which  is  12  inches.    These 
applied    on    the 
square,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  32,  to  a 
jack  rafter  tim- 
ber; taking  15  on 
the  blade  and  1 2 
on    the    tongue, 
marking  along 
the  blade  will 

give  the  back  bevel  for  the  jack  rafters,  and  marking  along  the  tongue 
will  give  the  face  cut  of  roof -boards  to  fit  along  the  hip  or  valley. 

It  is  shown  in  Fig.  30,  also,  that  by  taking  the  length  of  rafter 
15  inches  on  blade,  and  rise  of  roof  9  inches  on  tongue,  bevel  8  will 
give  the  miter  cut  for  the  roof-boards. 

In  Fig.  33  the  square  is  shown  applied  to  a  roof-board  with  15 
on  blade,  which  is  the  length  of  the  rafter  to  one  foot  of  run,  and 
with  9  on  tongue,  which  is  the  rise  of  the  roof  to  the  foot  run;  marking 
along  the  tongue  will  give  the  miter  for  the  boards. 

Other  uses  may  be  made  of  these 
figures,  as  shown  in  Fig.  34,  which 
is  one-half  of  a  gable  of  a  roof  ris- 
ing 9  inches  to  the  foot  run.  The 
squares  at  the  bottom  and  the  top 
will  give  the  plumb  and  heel  cuts  of 
the  common  rafter.  The  same 
figures  on  the  square  applied  to  the  studding,  marking  along  the 
tongue  for  the  cut,  will  give  the  bevel  to  fit  the  studding  against  the 
rafter;  and  by  marking  along  the  blade  we  obtain  the  cut  for  the 
boards  that  run  across  the  gable.    By  taking  19^  on  blade,  which  is 


Backing  of 


Fig.  .^5. 


Finding  Backing  of  Hip  in 
Uablo  Roof. 


2B2 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


23 


the  len^-.th  of  the  hip  for  one  foot  of  run,  and  taking  on  the  tongue  the 
rise  of  il..  '^oof  to  the  foot  of  run,  which  is  9  inches,  and  applying 
these  as  shcv:n  in  Fig.  35,  we  obtain  the  backing  of  the  hip  by 
marking  along  the  tongue  of  the  two  squares,  as  shown. 

It  will  be  observed  from  what  has  been  said,  that  in  roofs  of 
equal  pitch  the  figure  12  on  the  blade,  and  whatever  number  of  inches 
the  roof  rises  to  the  foot  run  on  the  tongue,  will  give  the  plumb  and 
heel  cuts  for  the  common  rafter;  and  that  by  taking  17  on  the  blade 
instead  of  12,  find  taking  on  the  tongue  the  figure  representing  the 
.  rise  of  the  roof  to  the  foot  run,  the  plumb  and  heel  cuts  are  found  for 
the  hips  and  valleys. 

By  taldng  the  length  of  the  common  rafter  for  one  foot  of  run 
on  blade,  and  the  run  12  on  tongue,  marking  along  the  blade  will  give 


6  6 

Fig.  36.    Laying  Out  Timbers  of  Koof  with  Two  Unequal  Pitches. 


the  back  bevel  for  the  jack  to  fit  the  hip  or  valley,  and  marking  along 
the  tongue  will  give  the  bevel  to  cut  the  roof-boards  to  fit  the  line  of 
hip  or  valley  upon  the  roof. 

With  this  knowledge  of  what  figures  to  use,  and  why  they  are 
used,  it  will  be  an  easy  matter  for  anyone  to  lay  out  all'  rafters  for 
equal-pitch  roofs. 

In  Fig.  36  is  shown  a  plan  of  a  roof  with  two  unec(ual  pitches. 
The  main  roof  is  shown  to  have  a  rise  of  12  inches  to  the  foot  run.  The 
front  wing  is  shown  to  have  a  run  of  6  feet  and  to  rise  12  feet;  it  has 
thus  a  pitch  of  24  inches  to  the  foot  run.  Therefore  12  on  blade  cf  the 
square  and  12  on  tongue  will  give  the  plumb  and  heel  cuts  for  the 
main  roof,  and  by  stepping  12  times  along  the  rafter  timber  the  length 
of  the  rafter  is  found.    The  figures  on  the  square  to  find  the  heel  and- 


363 


24 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


plumb  cuts  for  the  rafter  in  the  front  wing,  will  be  12  run  and  24  rise, 
and  by  stepping  0  times  (the  number  of  feet  in  the  nm  of  the  rafter), 
the  length  will  be  found  over  the  run  of  6  feet,  and  it  will  measure  13 
feet  G  inches. 

If,  in  place  of  stepping  along  the  timber,  the  diagonal  of  12  and 
24  is  multiplied  by  6,  the  number  of  feet  in  the  run, 
the  length  may  be  found  even  to  a  greater  exactitude. 

Many  carpenters  use  this  method  of  framing;  and 
to  those  who  have  confidence  in  their  ability  to  figure 
correctly,  it  is  a  saving  of  time,  and,  as  before  said 
will  result  in  a  more  accurate  measurement;   but  the 
better  and  more  scientific  method  of  framing  is  to  wor 
to  a  scale  of  one  inch,  as  has  already  been  explained. 

According  to  that  method,  the 
diagonal  of  a  foot  of  run,  and  the 
number  of  inches  to  the  foot  run  the 
roof  is  rising,  measured  to  a  scale, 
will  give  the  exact  length.  For 
example,  the  main  roof  in  Fig.  30  is 
rising  12  inches  to  a  foot  of  run.  The  diagonal  of  12  and  12  is  17 
inches,  which,  considered  as  a  scale  of  one  inch  to  a  foot,  will  give 


I 


' 


Fig.  37.    Finding-  Length  of  Rafter  for 

Front  Wing  in  Hoof  Shown  in 

Fig.  36. 


Fig.  3».    Laying  Out  Timbers  of  Roof  Shown  in  Fig.  Sfi,  hy  Projecting  Slope  of 

Koof  into  Horizontal  Plane. 

17  feet,  and  this  will  be  the  exact  length  of  the  rafter  for  a  roof  rising 
12  inches  to  the  foot  run  and  having  a  run  of  12  feet. 

The  length  of  the  rafter  for  the  front  wing,  which  has  a  run  of  G 
feet  and  a  rise  of  12  feet,  may  be  obtained  by  placing  the  rule  as  shown 


364 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


25 


Elevation 


in  Fig.  37,  from  0  on  blade  to  12  on  tongue,  whieh  will  give  a  length  of 
13^  inches.  If  the  scale  be  considered  as  one  inch  to  a  foot,  this  will 
equal  13  feet  6  inches,  which  will  be  the  exact  length  of  a  common 
rafter  rising  24  inches  to  the  foot  run  and  having  a  run  of  6  feet. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  plan  lines  of  the  valleys  in  this  figure 
in  respect  to  one  another  deviate  from  forming  a  right  angle.  In 
equal-pitch  roofs  the  plan  lines  are  always  at  right  angles  to  each  other, 
and  therefore  the  diagonal  of  12  and  12,  which  is  17  inches,  will  be 
the  relative  foot  run  of  valleys  and  hips  in  equal-pitch  roofs. 

In  Fig.  3G  is  shown  how  to  find  the  figures  to  use  on  the  square 
for  valleys  and  hips  when  deviating 
from  the  right  angle.  A  line  is 
drawn  at  a  distance  of  12  inches 
from  the  plate  and  parallel  to  it, 
cutting  the  valley  in  m  as  shown. 
The  part  of  the  valley  from  m  to 
the  plate  will  measure  ISo  inches, 
which  is  the  figure  that  is  to  be 
used  on  t\\3  square  to  obtain  the 
length  and  cuts  of  the  valleys. 

It  will  be  observed  that  this 
equals  the  length  of  the  common 
rafter  as  found  by  the  square  and 
rule  in  Fig.  37.  In  that  figure  is 
shown  12  on  tongue  and  6  on  blade. 
The  12  here  represents  the  rise,  and 
the  6  the  run  of  the  front  roof.  If 
the  12  be  taken  to  represent  the 
run  of  the  main  roof,  and  the  6  to 

represent  the  run  of  the  front  roof,  then,  the  diagonal  132  will  indi- 
cate the  length  of  the  seat  of  the  valley  for  12  feet  of  run,  and  there- 
fore for  one  foot  it  will  be  13  \  inches.  Now,  by  taking  13^  on  the 
blade  for  rim,  and  12  inches  on  the  tongue  for  rise,  and  stepping 
along  the  valley  rafter  timber  12  times,  the  length  of  the  valley 
will  be  found.  The  blade  will  give  the  heel  cut,  and  the  tongue  the 
plumb  cut. 

In  Fig.  3S  is  shov/n  the  slope  of  the  roof  projected  into  the  hori- 
zontal plane.    By  drawing  a  figure  based  on  a  scale  of  one  inch  to  one 


Plan 


Fig.  "9.  Method  of  Pindin^'- Length  and 

Cuts  of  Octagon  Hips  luiersei-t- 

iiig  a  Roof. 


S6B 


26 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


foot,  all  the  timbers  on  the  slope  of  the  roof  can  be  measured.  Bevel 
2,  shown  in  this  figure,  is  to  fit  the  valleys  against  the  ridge.  By 
drawing  a  line  from  w  scjnare  to  the  seat  of  the  valley  to  vi;  making 


-  -^  .Ridge  in  5econd   Po^sition 


Fig.  40.    Showing  How  Cornice  Aflects  Valley.s  unci  Plates  in  Roof  with  Uni  qiial  Pitches. 

w  2  equal  in  length  to  the  length  of  the  valley,  as  shown,  and  by  con- 
necting 2  and  m,  the  bevel  at  2  is  found,  which  will  fit  the  valleys 
against  the  ridge,  as  shown  at  3  and  3  in  Fig.  36. 

In  Fig.  39,  is  shown  how^  to  find  the  length  and  cuts  of  octagon 
hips  intersecting  a  roof.  In  Fig.  36,  half  the  plan  of  the  octagon  is 
shown  to  be  inside  of  the  plate;  and  the  hips  o,  z,  o  intersect  the  slope 
of  the  roof.  In  Fig.  39,  the  lines  below  x  y  are  the  plan  lines;  and  those 

above,  the  elevation.    From  z,  o. 

* 

o,  in  the  plan,  draw  lines  to  x  y, 
as  shown  from  o  to  m  and  from  z 
to  m;  from  m  and  7>i,draw  the  ele- 
vation lines  to  the  apex  o",  inter- 
secting the  line  of  the  roof  in  d" 
and  c".  From  (/"  and  c",  draw 
the  lines  d"  v"  and  c"  a"  parallel 
io  X  y;  from  c" ,  drop  ji  line  to  in- 
tersect the  plan  line  a  o  in  c. 
Make  a  iv  equal  in  length  to  a''o" 
of  the  elevation,  and  connect  w  c; 
measure  from  w  to  n  the  full  height 
of  the  octagon  as  shown  from  xy 
The  length  from  ic  to  c  is  that  of 


Plate  of  Na.TTOw    Roof 


Plate    of  Ma.i-n    Roof 


Lvvl 


3 


Fig.  41.    Showing  Relative  Position  of 
Plates  in  Koof  with  Two  Un- 
equal Pitches. 


to  the  apex  o" ;  and  connect  c  n. 


366 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


27 


the  two  hips  shown  at  o  o  in  Fig.  30,  both  being  equal  hips  intersect- 
ing the  roof  at  an  equal  distance  from  the  plate.  The  bevel  atwis  the 
top  bevel,  and  the  bevel  at  c  will  fit  the  roof. 

Again,  drop  a  line  irom  d"  to  intersect  the  plan  line  az'md. 
Make  a  2  equal  to  v"  o"  in  the  elevation,  and  connect  2  d.    JNIeasure 
from  2  to  6  the  full  height  of  the  tower  as  shown  from  x  tj  to  the  apex 
o"  in  the  elevation,  and  connect dh. 
The   length   2  d'  represents   the    w'^^^l^^Y^^^^X 
length   of    the   hip   z   shown   in 
Fig.  36;  the  bevel  at  2  is  that  of 
the  top;  and  the  bevel  at^,  the 
one  that  will  fit  the  foot  of  the 

hip  to  the  intersecting  roof. 

AA  hen  a  cornice  of  any  con- 
siderable  width    runs    aroimd    a 

roof   of   this  kind,  it  affects  the 

plates  and  the  angle  of  the  val- 
leys  as  shown  in    Fig.    40.    In 

this  figure   are  shown  the   same 

valleys  as  in  Fig.  36;  but,  owing 

to  the  width  of  the  cornice,  the 

foot  of  each  has  been  moved  the 

distance  a  h  along  the  plate  of  the 

main  roof.    Why  this  is  done  is 

shown  in  the  drawing  to  be  caused  by  the  necessity  for  the  valleys 

to  intersect  the  corners  c  c  of  the  cornice. 

The  plates  are  also  affected  as  shown  in  Fig.  41,  where  the  plate 

of  the  narrow  roof  is  shown  to  be  much  higher  than  the  plate  of  the 

main  roof. 

The  bevels  shown  at  3,  Fig.  40,  are  to  fit  the  valleys  against  the 
ridge. 

In  Fig.  42  is  shown  a  very  simple  method  of  finding  the  bevels  for 
purlins  in  equal-pitch  roofs.  Draw  the  plan  of  the  corner  as  shown, 
and  a  line  from  m  to  o;  measure  from  o  the  length  x  ij,  representino- 
the  common  rafter,  to  w;  from  lo  draw  a  line  to  m;  the  bevel  shown 
at  2  will  fit  the  top  face  of  the  purlin.  Again,  from  o,  describe  an 
arc  to  cut  the  seat  of  the  valley,  and  continue  same  around  to  S;  con- 
nect S  m;  the  bevel  at  3  will  be  the  side  bevel. 


Fitr.  i2. 


Method  of  Finding  Bevels  for  Pur- 
lins in  Equal-Pitcli  Roofs. 


867 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 


PRACTICAL  TgST  QUESTIONS. 

In  the  foregoing  sections  of  this  Cj^clopedia 
numerous  ilhistrative  examples  are  Avorked  out  in 
detail  in  order  to  show  the  application  of  the  various 
methods  and  principles.  Accompanying  these  are 
examples  for  practice  Avhich  will  aid  the  reader  in 
faxing  the  principles  in  mind. 

In  the  following  pages  are  given  a  large  number 
of  test  questions  and  problems  which  afford  a  valu- 
able means  of  testing  the  reader's  knowledge  of  the 
subjects  treated.  They  will  be  found  excellent  prac- 
tice for  those  preparing  for  College,  Civil  Service,  or 
Engineer's  License.  In  some  cases  numerical  answers 
are  given  as  a  further  aid  in  this  work. 


369 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS 

ON     THE     SUBJECT     OF 

C  A  R  P  E  ]Sr.T  R  Y . 

PART    I. 


1.  Give  a  rule  for  squaring  a  log  to  get  the  strongest  pos- 
sible timber  out  of  it. 

2.  What  is  the  "three-four-five  rule,"  and  how  is  it  used? 

3.  Describe  (and  illustrate  by  a  sketch)  a  splice  suitable 
for  a  piece  subjected  to  a  bending  stress. 

4.  Why  is  a  "  ledger-board  "  not  as  good  as  a  "  girt "  for 
supporting  the  ends  of  floor  joists  ? 

5.  What  are  partition  caps  and  soles?  Wliat  takes  the 
place  of  the  sole  when  there  is  a  partition  directly  beneath  the  one 
which  is  beino;'  built? 

6.  Show  by  a  sketch  what  is  meant  by  "sizing  down"  a 
joist  onto  a  girder  or  sill. 

7.  What  is  the  method  employed  for  supporting  a  corner 
which  has  no  direct  support  beneath  it?  Make  a  sketch  of  the 
framing  for  such  a  corner. 

8.  From  what  two  classes  of  trees  is  most  building  lumber 
obtained  ? 

9.  Give  a  brief  description  of  the  following  varieties  of 
timber :. 

a.     Cypress  d.     Spruce 

6.     Ash  e.     Pine 

c.     Poplar  /.     Oak 

10.  Name,  and  show  by  sketch,  five  kinds  of  joints  used  in 
carpentry. 

11.  What   must  take  place    before    a   "fished"  splice  for 
tension  can  be  pulled  apart? 

12.  What  is  a  "  raised  girt  ?  "  a  "  dropped  girt  ?  " 


871 


CAKPENTIIY 


13.  How   are    furring  walls   around    chimney  breasts  con- 
structed ? 

14.  Explain    one    method    of    framing    joists    into   girders. 
Girders  into  sills.     Illustrate  with  sketch. 

15.  How  are  floors  "  bridged ? "    Which  is  the  best  method? 
Why? 

16.  What  is  the  manner  of  growth  of  the  trees  named  in 
Question  9,  and  in  what  other  way  do  trees  grow  ? 

17.  What  qualities  are  required  in  a  wood  to  be  used  for 
light  framing  ? 

18.  Wliat  is   "ground  water,"  and  wh}^  must  it  be  taken 
into  account  in  tlie  laying  out  of  a  building? 

19.  Show  by  sketch  how  the  corner  of  a  wooden  building 
may  be  framed  so  as  to  give  a  nailing  for  the  lathing. 

20.  At  the  point  where  a  partition  meets  an  outside  wall, 
what  sliould  be  the  arrangement  of  the  studding?     Wliy? 

21.  Explain  the  method  of  framing  around  an  opening  in 
the  floor  frame  for  a  chimney  or  staircase. 

Give  clear  definitions  of  the  following: 


oo 


a.  Pith  e.  Heai'twood 

h.  Annual  King  f.  Sapwood 

c.  Medullary  Ray  g.  Cross-grained  Timber 

d.  Heartshake  h.  Cupshake  and  AVindshako 

23.  Wliat  is  the  '' heel  "  of  a  steel  square?  the  "blade?" 
the  "  tongue?" 

24.  What  are  "  batter-boards  ?  "  Make  a  sketch  of  one  form 
of  batter-board. 

25.  How  is  a  "key"  employed  in  a  splice  for  tension? 
What  determines  the  distance  between  keys  if  there  are  more  than 
one  in  a  single  splice  ? 

26.  What  is  the  function  of  the  braces  in  braced  frames? 
Show  by  a  sketch  one  method  of  bracing  a  frame. 

27.  What  is  meant  by  "crowning?"     Why  is  it  necessary? 

28.  Explain  the  effect  of  the  shrinkage  of  framing  timber, 
and  explain  how  unequal  settlement  (^due  to  such  shrinkage)  may 
be  prevented. 

29.  What  is  the  best  method  of  cutting  planks  from  a  log? 
Why? 


372 


REVIE^V    QtJESTIOXS 

0>-      THE      StrUJECT      OF 

CARF  E  X  T  R  Y . 

PART    II. 


1.  Give  full  description  of  the  various  forms  of  roofs,  with 
sketches. 

2.  Give  a  rule  for  obtaining  the  rise  of  the  rafter  in  a  roof, 
the  span  of  which  is  known. 

3.  Describe  the  method  emploved  in   framintT  a  aanibrel 

J.  ••  DP 

roof. 

4.  What  is  the  "run  of  a  rafter"?  AVhat  is  the  rise? 
What  is  meant  by  the  pitch  ? 

5.  AVhat  important  property  is  characteristic  of  all  lines  in 
a  roof  surface  which  are  parallel  to  the  ridge  line  ?  Tell  in  a 
general  way  how  this  fact  is  made  use  of  in  laying  out  the  valley 
line. 

0.  What  are  the  two  distances  which  determine  the  posi- 
tion of  the  steel  square  in  laying  out  valley  rafters  ? 

7.  AVhp.t  is  the  principle  used  in  finding  the  slope  of  the 
hip  rafter  in  an  "ogee-'  roof? 

8.  What   is   the  usual   size  of   rafters  for  ordinary  frame 

dwellinops  ? 

o 

9.  Describe  a  hip  rafter.  What  relation  does  it  bear  to  a 
parallel  valley  rafter  in  the  same  roof  surface? 

10.  What  is  the  method  of  framing  adopted  for  the  valley 
when  a  small  gable  intersects  a  large  roof  ? 

11.  Describe  the  different  kinds  of  jack  rafters. 

12.  What  must  be  done  to  studs  formino-  the  framework  of 
an  attic  partition  in  order  to  make  them  fit  the  under  side  cf  the 
roof  framincr  ? 

13.  In  what  does  "backiuo;"  consist  ? 

D 


373 


CARPENTKY 


14.  Describe  two  methods  of  forming  the  eaves  on  frame 
buildings 

15.  Describe  the  framing  of  a  mansard  roof. 

16.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  ridge-pole  and  how  is  it 
usually  made. 

17.  Describe  two  different  kinds  of  dormer  windows. 

18.  How  are  openings  made  in  a  roof  frame  for  dormer 
windoM's,  skylights,  etc.? 

19.  When  are  trussed  partitions  used  ?  Describe  in  a  gen- 
eral way  their  construction. 

20.  Describe  two  methods  of  constructing  an  "  inclined 
floor". 

21.  AVhat  is  the  difference  between  a  '.'  king-post  trussed 
beam"  and  a  "queen-post  trussed  beam"? 

22.  Describe  the  construction  of  a  '*  flitch  plate  girder  ". 
28.     What  are  the  different  kinds  of  rafters  used  in  a  roof 

frame  ?     Describe  each. 

24.  Give  a  rule  for  determining  the  general  proportions  of 
a  gambrel  roof.     Illustrate  by  a  sketch. 

25.  How  are  rafters  of  long  span  strengthened?  What  are 
"dwarf  walls"?    What  is  a  collar  beam?    Make  sketches  of  same. 

20.  Describe  the  construction  of  a  "notched"  beam.  A 
"keyed"  beam. 

27.  Explain  the  difference  between  a  "king-post  truss"  and 
a  "  queen -post  truss  ". 

28.  How  is  the  curved  form  given  to  a  bell-shaped  or 
concave  tower  roof  ? 

29.  Is  the  stress  in  the  king-post  of  a  common  king-post 
truss  tension  or  compression  ?  Of  what  material  is  it  ordinarily 
made  ? 

30.  Describe  or  show  by  a  sketch  a  method  of  framing  a 
domical  roof  with  provision  for  a  lantern  at  the  top. 

81.  What  is  a  "groined"  ceiling? 

82.  How  far  may  a  balcony  or  gallery  be  allowed  to  project 
beyond  the  line  of  supporting  columns  without  the  introduction 
of  a  brace  ? 

83.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  two  connections 
shown  in  Fig.  202  i     What  does  each  depend  upon  for  its  strength? 


374 


REVIKTV    QUESTIOiSrS 

O  >•     THE      SUBJECT      O  !•'• 

STAIR -BUILDIXG 

1.  Define  staircase  and  stairway. 

2.  What  is  meant  by  the  rise  and  run  of  a  stairway?  How 
measured  ? 

3.  Define  tread  and  riser. 

4.  How  do  treads  and  risers  compare  as  to  number?    Why? 

5.  What  is  a  string  or  string-board'!  Describe  the  various 
kinds  of  strings. 

G.  How  are  treads  and  risers  fitted  together  and  fastened  in 
housed  strings? 

7.     Describe  the  construction  and  use  of  a  pitch-hoard. 

S.  How  are  the  rehitive  dimensions  of  treads  and  risers  deter- 
mined? 

0.     Are  all  the  risers  in  a  flight  of  stairs  cut  of  uniform  height? 

10.  Describe  the  use  of  'flyers,  ivinders,  and  dancing  steps. 

11.  How  are  balusters  fastened  on  strings? 

12.  How  are  strings  fastened  to  newel-posts? 

13.  Describe  methods  of  constructing  buUnose  steps  and  risers 
for  same. 

14."  AMiat  is  the  difference  between  a  quarter-space  landing 
and  a  half -space  landing'! 

15.  Define  the  terms:  well-hole;  drum;  cylinder;  kerfng; 
geometrical  staincay;  carriage  timber;  wreath;  tangent;  crown 
tangent;  springing  of  a  well-hole;  ground-line;  swan-neck;  face- 
mould;    nosing;    return  nosing;    spandrel;    cove-moulding. 

10.     Describe  the  use  of  the  face-mould. 

17.  When  the  face-mould  is  applied,  and  material  for  the 
wreath  cut  from  the  plank,  how  is  the  wreath-piece  given  its  final 
shape? 


375 


STAIR-BUILDTXG 


18.  What  is  the  use  of  tangents  in  handraiHng?  What  do  the 
bevels  represent? 

19.  What  is  an  oblique  plane'? 

20.  Are  all  wreaths  assumed  to  be  resting  on  an  oblique  plane? 

21.  In  referring  to  jjn  oblique  plane,  what  do  you  understand 
by  the  expressions  inclined  in  one  direction  only  and  inclined  in  tivo 
directions'^ 

22.  What  is  meant  when  two  wreath  tangents  are  said  to  be 
equally  inclined'^     What,  when  unequally  inclined"? 

23.  When  an  oblique  plane  is  incUned  in  one  direction  c)nly, 
how  many  bevels  will  be  needed  to  twist  the  wreath? 

24.  When  the  plane  inclines  in  two  directions,  how  many  bevels 
are  required? 

25.  When  the  inclination  is  equal  in  two  directions,  how  many 
bevels  are  needed? 

26.  W^hen  the  plane  is  unetiually  inclined  in  two  directions, 
how  many  bevels  are  needed? 

27.  How  can  a  stairway  be  reinforced? 

28.  How  shoidd  a  scroll  bracket  be  terminated  against  the 
riser? 

29.  When  a  plane  is  equally  inclined  in  two  directions,  hov/  are 
the  bevel  or  bevels  to  be  applied  to  twist  the  wreath  resting  upon  it 
in  its  ascent  around  the  well-hole? 

30.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  plan  tangents,  pitch-line 
of  tangents,  and  tangents  of  the  ]ace-mouhVi 

31.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  determine  with  exactness  the  angle 
between  the  tangents  on  the  face-mould  ? 

32.  What  is  the  width  of  the  face-mould  to  be,  when  laid  out  on 
the  minor  axis? 

33.  How  is  the  width  of  the  mould  at  the  ends  determined? 

34.  How  do  you  find  the  minor  axis  and  major  axis  of  the  mould 
curves? 

35.  Show  how  to  find  the  thickness  of  the  plank  that  will  be 
recjuired  for  the  wreath. 

30.  When  the  plan  tangents  are  at  a  right  angle  to  each  other, 
and  the  pitch  is  equal,  how  are  the  bevels  to  be  applied,  (1)  in  relation 
to  each  other;  (2)  in  relation  to  the  sides  of  the  wreath? 


378 


RKVTK^V    QUT^STTOXS 

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E  S  T I  ]M  A  T I N  O . 

PARTI 


1.  (a)  What  will  a  walk  of  bluestone  flagging  4  ft.  wide  and  19 
ft.  long  cost,  complete?  (b)  Give  cost  of  limestone  coping  for  an  18- 
inch  wall  on  one  side  of  the  path. 

2.  (a)  About  how  many  square  yards  of  surface  will  four  pounds 
of  paint  cover  in  two  coats?  (b)  How  much  will  it  cost  to  paint  a 
brick  wall  8  ft.  high  and  15  ft.  long  with  three  coats  of  paint? 

3.  (a)  How  many  feet  B.  M.  in  a  4-in.  x  10-in.  stick  22  ft.  long? 
(b)  How  much  lumber  will  it  take  to  stud  up  a  wall  12  ft.  long  and 
9  ft.  high  with  two  windows  in  it? 

4.  Give  aii  analysis  of  one  cubic  yard  of  concrete. 

5.  What  percentage  of  the  cost  of  a  building  should  be 
allowed  for  heating  by  furnace?     How  much  of  this  goes  to  the  labor? 

C.     What  will  a  square  of  slating  cost? 

7.  Analyze  the  cost  of  a  square  of  flooring. 

8.  (a)  What  will  be  the  cost  of  a  plain  copper  roof  for  a  store 
30  ft.  X  40  ft.?     (b)  What  will  be  the  cost  of  a  tin  roof? 

9.  How  many  cubic  feet  of  wall  will  a  thousand  bricks  lay? 

10.  Give  an  analysis  of  the  cost  of  100  square  yards  of  2-coat 
plastering. 

11.  What  gpecial  data  besides  plans  and  specifications  are 
necessary  to  figure  a  job  for  a  contract? 

12.  How  many  square  feet  will  1000  shingles  lay  at  5  in. 
to     the     weather? 

13.  What  will  be  the  a{)prox!mate  cost  of  a  house  20  ft.  X  30 
ft.  with  an  8  ft.  cellar  and  a  half-pitch  gable  roof,  at  12  cents  per 
cubic  foot? 


377 


ESTIMATING 


14.  How  large  .a  furnace  pipe  must  be  run  to  a  room  15  ft. 
X  20  ft.    and  10  ft.  high,  and  what  will  be  the  size  of  register? 

15.  Give  a  rule  for  finding  the  number  of  studs  in  a  front  if 
set  16  in.  on  centers.     If  set  12  in.  on  centers. 

10.  AVhat  will  be  the  cost  of  an  ordinary  flight  of  stairs  of  17 
risers  for  a  $3000  house?  How  much  should  be  allowed  for  the 
cellar  stairs  of  14  risers? 

17.  How  much  studding  can  two  men  set  in  one  day?  How 
much  boarding?     Shingles?     Diagonal  boarding? 

18.  (a)  How  many  square  yards  of  2-coat  plastering  can  a  mason 
and  helper  put  on  in  one  day?      (b)  What  will  it  cost? 

19.  (a)  What  will  the  newel  of  an  ordinary  staircase  cost? 
(b)  How  much  will  the  balusters  of  first  run  cost  at  two  to  a  tread  if 
the  run  is  8  risers  high? 

20.  (a)  How  many  bricks  will  be  required  to  build  a  wall  10  ft. 
high,  30  ft.  long,  and  1  ft.  thick,  (b)  What  will  it  cost  in  1  to  3  lime 
mortar? 

21.  What  will  it  cost  to  put  on  1000  laths? 

22.  In  making  repairs  a  man  required  the  services  of  a  carpen- 
ter for  5  hours,  a  plumber  and  helper  2  days,  and  an  electrician  for  a 
day  and  a  half,  Avhat  was  his  bill  for  labor? 

23.  What  will  it  cost  to  dig  out  a  cellar  18  ft.  X  30  ft.;  4  ft. 
below  grade  at  one  end  and  G  ft.  the  other? 

24.  (a)  At  a  base  price  of  $2.45  per  cwt.  what  will  three  cwt.  of 
6-penny  box  nails  cost?     (b)  What  will  1    cwt.  of  4-penny  slating 

nai'ls  cost? 

25.  (a)  What  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  a  house  will  usually  go  to 
the  plumbing?     (b)  What  portion  of  this  will  represent  the  labor? 

2G.  (a)  What  is  the  relative  cost  of  marble  as  compared  with 
limestone?     (I))  Of  sandstone  as  compared  with  lime^stone? 

27.  (a)  What  is  the  usual  cost  of  moulded  finish  in  white  wood 
or  cypress?  (b)  What  will  the  casings  for  both  sides  of  a  door  3  ft  X 
7  ft.  cost,  using  a  5-inch  casing  with  corner  blocks? 

28.  (a)  About  how  many  cubic  feet  will  one  square  foot  of  direct 
steam  radiation  heat,  in  the  first  story  of  a  dwelling?  (b)  Direct  hot 
water  radiation? 

20.  What  will  be  the  area  of  a  pyramidal  roof  20  ft.  square  at 
the  base  and  15  ft.  on  the  rafter  line?. 


378 


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